2nd Quarter Science Notes PDF

[S C I E N C E] 2ND QUARTER NOTES # WE LOVE ANTON 🗣️🔥🗿😛 🗣️ 🔥 🌍 🌐 l e g e n d: 🟠 Stars and Constellations ⚪️ Sun 🟡 Moon 🔵 Solar Lunar Eclipses 🟢 Tides 🔘 Origins Of The Solar System 🟣 Geology 🔴 Eart...

[S C I E N C E] 2ND QUARTER NOTES # WE LOVE ANTON 🗣️🔥🗿😛 🗣️ 🔥 🌍 🌐 l e g e n d: 🟠 Stars and Constellations ⚪️ Sun 🟡 Moon 🔵 Solar Lunar Eclipses 🟢 Tides 🔘 Origins Of The Solar System 🟣 Geology 🔴 Earth’s age Plate Tectonics 1 I. STARS and CONSTELLATIONS ⭐️ 🌟🌌🌠 Astronomy ​ Astrology is a belief system that suggests that the positions and movements of celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars) can influence human affairs and natural phenomena. ​ Astrology divides the zodiac into twelve signs, each linked to a specific constellation. STARS ⭐️ 🌟 ​ A giant ball of glowing gas that is very hot. Nuclear Fusion ​ The nuclei of atoms combine to create a new atom. Star Sizes ​ Defined by Solar mass which is 1.989 x 10^30kg (or about 333,000 times the mass of the Earth) ​ Defined as the mass of the sun itself ​ Unit of “Solar Radius” ​ 6.96 x 10^8 meters Light Years ​ distance of light travelsin 1 year ​ 3 × 108 m/s ​ 670,616,629 mph ​ 1,079,252,849 km/h ​ 1LY = 9.46 x 10^15m or 9.46 x 10^12 Parallax ​ The apparent displacement or the difference in apparent direction of an object as seen from two different points not on a straight line with the object Hertzsprung-russell Diagram ​ Illustrates these relationships effectively, showing how temperature influences both color and luminosity Luminosity ​ Is the total amount of energy emitted by a star per unit time, typically measured in watts or in solar luminosities Stefan Boltzmann Law ​ Star luminosity is related to its surface area and the amount of energy emitted by each square meter of the surface. 2 Types of Stars: ​ Low mass stars ​ Stars that are less than 8 solar masses ​ High mass stars ​ Stars that are equal to or greater than 8 solar masses Parsecs ​ A unit of length used to measure the large distance to astronomical objects outside the Solar System, approximately equal to 3.26 light -years or 206,265 astronomical units. LIFE CYCLE OF A LOW MASS STAR 1.​ Interstellar Clouds ​ These are vast clumps of dust, gas and plasma held together by gravity. 2.​ Protostar ​ Formed as gravity begins to pull the gasses together into a ball ​ Accretion Disk - is a structure formed by a diffused material in orbital motion around a central body 3.​ Main Sequence ​ The star reaches a stable state when the inward and outward forces are in equilibrium ​ 90% of stars get older 4.​ Red Giant ​ When the star gets older, hydrogen depletes and the core turns into helium 5.​ Yellow Giant ​ It will exhaust the helium fuel in its core and will fuse heavier elements ​ It will become more cool and more luminous 6.​ Variable Star ​ Observable light varies notably in size and intensity 7.​ Planetary Nebula ​ Most of the hydrogen has been burned and fusion of helium releases less hydrogen 8.​ White Dwarf ​ After the outer layers are lost, the remaining core is left a hot dense object ​ The core is primarily composed of carbon and oxygen 9.​ Black dwarf ​ Eventually, after an extremely long time, a white dwarf will cool sufficiently to become a cold, dark object 3 LIFE CYCLE OF A HIGH MASS STAR 1.​ Massive star ​ Our sun 2.​ Yellow giant phase ​ As the star continues to evolve, it will exhaust the helium fuel in it’s core and will begin to fuse with heavier elements. ​ In a sun’s yellow giant phase, it will grow in size and become more luminous. 3.​ Red supergiant phase ​ As the core depletes it’s hydrogen, the other layers of the star will expand and becomes a red supergiant. 4.​ Supernova ​ Continuous fusion produces an iron core ​ Iron can’t release energy through fusion, since it requires a larger input of energy than it can release. The iron core will be succumb to the force of gravity. 5.​ Nebula ​ Nebulae are giant clouds of dust and gas in space, leftovers thrown out by a supernova. ​ Some regions of a nebula form stars, for this reason, they are called “star nurseries.” 6.​ Neutron Stars ​ A neutron star is a collapsed core of a massive supergiant star. It’s the result of the supernova explosion of the said “Massive Star,” combined gravitational collapse, it compresses the core past its white dwarf phase into an atomic nucleus. 7.​ Black Holes ​ Are points in space that are so dense they create deep gravity sink CONSTELLATIONS Constellation 🌌🌠 ​ A pattern of stars in the night sky ​ The stars may be very distant from one another. They are not connected to each other at all Constellations ​ These depend on the time of year ​ Your location on Earth also determines what stars and constellations you see and how high they appear to rise in the sky Celestial Constellation 4  ​ Constellations have been used as a celestial navigation aid, helping sailors, travelers, and explorers determine their position and direction Polaris (North Star) ​ Sits more or less directly above Earth's north pole along our planet's rotational axis ​ As our planet rotates through the night, the stars around the pole appear to rotate around the sky ​ Indicates true north, allowing navigators to orient themselves in the northern hemisphere Celestial Bodies ​ Provide the basic standards for determining the periods of a calender Circumpolar Constellations ​ Refers to constellations that surround the north and south celestial poles without ever falling below the horizon Seasonal Constellation ​ Are groups of stars that are best visible in the night sky during specific seasons Asterisms ​ Are groups of stars that form recognizable patterns in the sky, and they can indeed be part of larger constellations Astrology ​ Is a belief system that suggests that the position of the sun, moon, planets, and stars (celestial bodies) can influence human ​ Affairs and natural phenomena ​ Divides the zodiac into twelve signs. each linked to a specific constellation 5 II. SUN ☀️ ⭐️ ​ The Hemisphere that is more directly facing the Sun at a given point in Earth’s orbit receives more of the Sun’s energy. COMPOSITION: ​ Hydrogen (71%) ​ Helium (27.1%) ​ Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Sodium, Magnesium, Neon, Iron and Sulfur (1.9%) CORE ​ Innermost part of the sun. Source of the sun’s energy. ​ Approximately 20% of the solar interior. Approximately 15 million K, making it the hottest part of the sun. RADIATIVE ZONE ​ Light particles carry the energy created in the Sun's core toward the surface as thermal radiation. ​ It can take millions of years for energy to travel through the radiative zone. CONVECTIVE ZONE ​ The outermost layer of the solar interior is approximately 200,000 kilometers. ​ Energy flows through these convection currents that appear as granules on the visible surface of the sun. PHOTOSPHERE ​ The visible surface of the Sun. It’s the part that we see shining. ​ The temperature in the photosphere varies around 6500k at the bottom and 4000k CHEMOSPHERE ​ Lies above the photosphere. It is about 2,000 km thick. Visible only when the photosphere was concealed by the Moon during a total solar eclipse. ​ Temperatures range from about 4,000°C to about 10,000°C. Appears bright red because of the hydrogen. CORONA ​ The outermost part of the Sun’s atmosphere. Observed during total eclipse. ​ It is the Sun’s halo, or “crown” with a temperature of 1 - 3 million K. SUNSPOTS ​ Sunspots are the areas where the magnetic field is about 2,500 times stronger than Earth’s, much higher than anywhere else on the sun. SOLAR PROMINENCES 6  ​ Loops of plasma and magnetic field anchored to the Sun’s surface in the photosphere, and extended out in the corona. SOLAR FLARES ​ Are a dense and localised emission of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun’s corona. AURORA BOREALIS ​ Occurs due to the interaction between charged particles from the Sun (solar wind) and the Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere. CHARACTERISTICS 1.​ Mass - 1.99 x 10^30kg 2.​ Temperature - 15,000,000 Kelvin in core 3.​ Rotation - Rotates once every 35 earth days Summer Solstice ​ In the summer, the Sun rises in the northeast, reaches its highest maximum height, and stays up longest Spring and Fall Equinox ​ The Sun rises southeast and remains low in the winter when the days are shortest Winter Solstice ​ The length of day and night are equal on the Vernal, or Spring Equinox (March 20) and on the Autumnal Equinox (September 23) when the Sun rises exactly east and sets exactly west 7 III. MOON 🌕✨ ​ The point in the moon's orbit where it is farthest from the earth is called apogee, while its closest approach is known as perigee. ​ As the Moon orbits Earth, different portions of its surface are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the various phases of the Moon that we observe from Earth THE MOON PHASES 1.​ NEW MOON ​ The beginning of the Lunar Cycle ​ No portion of the Moon's surface is lit. ​ The moon is between the earth and the sun 2.​ WAXING CRESCENT ​ During the waxing crescent phase, a small silver on the right side of the moon is lit. 3.​ FIRST QUARTER ​ The right half of the moon is lit. ​ The moon and earth are now "side by side" in their orbits around the sun. 4.​ WAXING GIBBOUS ​ The entire right side of the moon is almost lit. 5.​ FULL MOON ​ The entire half of the moon's surface is lit. ​ Behind the Earth and Sun. 6.​ WANING GIBBOUS ​ The entire left of the moon’s surface is lit. 7.​ LAST QUARTER/THIRD QUARTER ​ Only the left half of the moon is lit. ​ The moon and earth are now “side by side” in their orbits around the Sun. 8.​ WANING CRESCENT ​ A small sliver is the only left lit on the left side of the moon. Three Things We Learned From Apollo Rocks 1.​ The chemical composition of Moon and Earth rocks are very similar. ​ Rock samples indicated that the Moon was once a part of Earth. Basaltic rocks from the Moon's mantle have striking similarities to basaltic rocks from Earth's mantle. 2.​ The Moon was once covered in an ocean of magma. 8  ​ The type and composition of the samples showed that the Moon had been molten during its formation and was covered with a deep ocean of magma for tens of millions to hundreds of millions of years. 3.​ Meteorites have shattered and melted rocks on the Moon's surface through impacts. ​ Meteorites originating from asteroids have also been used to help confirm the timeline of the Moon's formation. Some show signs of having been bombarded by debris from the giant, Moon-forming impact. MOON FORMATION ​ The Apollo evidence all pointed to the Moon forming from a large impact. The age of the rock samples indicated that the Moon formed around 60 million years after the solar system began to form. SOFIA ​ Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, has detected water molecules (H2O) in Clavius Crater, one of the largest craters visible from Earth, located in the Moon's southern hemisphere. APOLLO MISSIONS ​ Project Apollo's goals went beyond landing Americans on the moon and returning them safely to Earth. They included: ​ Establishing the technology to meet other national interests in space. ​ Achieving prominence in space for the United States. ​ Carrying out a program of scientific exploration of the Moon. ​ Developing human capability to work in the lunar environment. APOLLO 11 ​ On July 20, 1969, humans walked on another world for the first time in history. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin explored the area around their lunar landing site for more than two hours. 9 IV. Solar & Lunar Eclipses 🌑☀️ ​ The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted relative to Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This tilt is the reason why we have occasional eclipses instead of eclipses every month. ​ The Moon experiences notation as its orbit is affected by the gravitational pull of the Earth and the Sun, leading to slight variations in its orientation over a period of 18.6 years. ​ You will need specific glasses to look at solar eclipses while a lunar eclipse is fine to look at without eye protection. UMBRA ​ Darker inner area wherein the light source is completely blocked ​ An observer in the umbra experiences a total eclipse of the Sun. TYPES OF ECLIPSES ​ Dependent on how much of the Sun is covered by the Moon. 1.​ T O T A L (solar eclipse) ​ A total eclipse is when the Moon completely blocks our view of the Sun, revealing the Sun’s outer atmosphere-the Corona. ​ Takes place when the Earth comes perfectly between the Sun and the Moon and its shadow covers the Moon. 2.​ A N N U L A R (solar eclipse) ​ An annular eclipse occurs when the moon doesn't completely cover the Sun, leaving a "ring of fire" around the Moon. During an annular eclipse, the Sun, Moon, and Earth are perfectly aligned, but the Moon is at its farthest point away from Earth. 3.​ P A R T I A L (solar eclipse) ​ A partial eclipse occurs when the Moon only covers part of the Sun. During a partial solar eclipse, the darkest shadow of the moon, the umbra, misses Earth. Only a partial shadow, the penumbra, lands on Earth. ​ A partial lunar eclipse happens when the Earth moves between the Sun and the Full Moon, but they are not precisely aligned. 4.​ P E N U M B R A L (lunar eclipse) ​ This is where the Moon passes through the light, outer part of Earth's shadow, called the penumbra. NUMBER OF ECLIPSES PER YEAR: ​ Four eclipses in a year (minimum). ​ Two of these 4 eclipses must be solar eclipses. ​ While rare, the maximum number of eclipses in a calendar year is 7 (5 solar and 2 lunar eclipses or 2 solar and 5 lunar eclipses). 10 11 V. TIDES 🌊🔱 WHAT CAUSES TIDES? ​ The Moon and Earth exert a gravitational pull on each other. On Earth, the Moon's gravitational pull causes the oceans to bulge out on both the side closest to the Moon and the side farthest from the Moon. TIDAL BULGE ​ On the "near" side of the Earth (the side facing the moon), the gravitational force of the moon pulls the ocean's waters toward it, creating one bulge. On the far side of the Earth, inertia dominates, creating a second bulge. TIDAL LAG ​ 15 minute lag of the tides because the Earth spins faster than the Moon. LOW TIDE ​ The time at which the tide is lowest. HIGH TIDE ​ The tide at its fullest, when the water reaches its highest level. TIME OF HIGH AND LOW TIDES ​ Coastal areas experience two high tides and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. ​ Low tide and high tide occur 12 hours and 50 minutes apart. It takes six hours and 12.5 minutes for the water at the shore to go from high to low, or low to high. TIDAL RANGE ​ The tidal range is the difference between the ocean level at high tide and low tide. MONTHLY TIDE PATTERNS spring tide ​ Highest tidal range that occurs near the times of the new and full moon. ​ High tides are higher and low tides are lower than average. neap tide ​ Lowest tidal range occurring near the times of the first and third quarter phases of the moon. ​ High tides are a little lower and low tides are a little higher than average 12 VI. ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 💨💫 THEORY 1: THE BIG BANG THEORY ​ The widely accepted theory regarding the evolution of the universe that centers from a single point of infinite density and high temperature called singularity. TIME SINCE BIG BANG The singularity expanded and cooled around 13.8 billion years ago. 1.​ Planck Era - 10^-43 seconds ​ From zero to approximately 10-43 seconds (1 Planck Time) The four basic forces of nature were combined into a single "super" force. 2.​ GUT era - 10^35 seconds ​ Not included 3.​ Electroweak era -10^16 seconds ​ Not included 4.​ Particle Era - 0.001 seconds ​ Not included 5.​ Era of Nucleosynthesis - 3 minutes ​ Era of nucleosynthesis lasted from 3 minutes to 20 minutes. The universe was only 1 millisecond old, nuclei were hot enough and dense enough to fuse to create heavier elements, but it was so dense that the nuclei broke apart again as soon as they formed. 6.​ Era of Nuclei - 300,000 years ​ Lasted from 3 minutes to 240,000 years. Currently a dense soup of matter: the universe was too hot to form neutral atoms; all of the particles were in the form of atomic nuclei. 7.​ Era of Atoms - 1 billion years ​ Not included 8.​ Era of Galaxies - Present time ​ Not included EVIDENCE OF BIG BANG THEORY -​ Cosmic Microwave Background ​ Is the cooled remnant of the first light that could ever travel freely throughout the Universe. -​ Hubble's Law ​ In 1924, astronomer Edwin Hubble used a technique pioneered by Henrietta Leavitt. He discovered that the speed at which astronomical objects move apart is proportional to their distance from each other. -​ Blue and Red Shift Effect ​ When scientists noticed a spectrum of this starlight, they saw the absorbed light had fallen from the spectrum and formed dark lines called absorption lines. 13  ​ The absorption lines of almost all galaxies are red shifted. Infrared>||||||||||||||||||