303 Creative LLC v. Elenis (2023) Supreme Court Case PDF

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2022 1 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issue...

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2022 1 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued. The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Syllabus 303 CREATIVE LLC ET AL. v. ELENIS ET AL. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE TENTH CIRCUIT No. 21–476. Argued December 5, 2022—Decided June 30, 2023 Lorie Smith wants to expand her graphic design business, 303 Creative LLC, to include services for couples seeking wedding websites. But Ms. Smith worries that Colorado will use the Colorado Anti-Discrimi- nation Act to compel her—in violation of the First Amendment—to cre- ate websites celebrating marriages she does not endorse. To clarify her rights, Ms. Smith filed a lawsuit seeking an injunction to prevent the State from forcing her to create websites celebrating marriages that defy her belief that marriage should be reserved to unions be- tween one man and one woman. CADA prohibits all “public accommodations” from denying “the full and equal enjoyment” of its goods and services to any customer based on his race, creed, disability, sexual orientation, or other statutorily enumerated trait. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(2)(a). The law defines “public accommodation” broadly to include almost every public-facing business in the State. §24–34–601(1). Either state officials or private citizens may bring actions to enforce the law. §§24–34–306, 24–34– 602(1). And a variety of penalties can follow any violation. Before the district court, Ms. Smith and the State stipulated to a number of facts: Ms. Smith is “willing to work with all people regard- less of classifications such as race, creed, sexual orientation, and gen- der” and “will gladly create custom graphics and websites” for clients of any sexual orientation; she will not produce content that “contra- dicts biblical truth” regardless of who orders it; Ms. Smith’s belief that marriage is a union between one man and one woman is a sincerely held conviction; Ms. Smith provides design services that are “expres- sive” and her “original, customized” creations “contribut[e] to the over- all message” her business conveys “through the websites” it creates; the wedding websites she plans to create “will be expressive in nature,” 2 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Syllabus will be “customized and tailored” through close collaboration with in- dividual couples, and will “express Ms. Smith’s and 303 Creative’s message celebrating and promoting” her view of marriage; viewers of Ms. Smith’s websites “will know that the websites are her original art- work;” and “[t]here are numerous companies in the State of Colorado and across the nation that offer custom website design services.” Ultimately, the district court held that Ms. Smith was not entitled to the injunction she sought, and the Tenth Circuit affirmed. Held: The First Amendment prohibits Colorado from forcing a website designer to create expressive designs speaking messages with which the designer disagrees. Pp. 6–26. (a) The framers designed the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment to protect the “freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think.” Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, 530 U. S. 640, 660–661 (internal quotation marks omitted). The freedom to speak is among our inalienable rights. The freedom of thought and speech is “indis- pensable to the discovery and spread of political truth.” Whitney v. California, 274 U. S. 357, 375 (Brandeis, J., concurring). For these reasons, “[i]f there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation,” West Virginia Bd. of Ed. v. Barnette, 319 U. S. 624, 642, it is the prin- ciple that the government may not interfere with “an uninhibited mar- ketplace of ideas,” McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U. S. 464, 476 (internal quotation marks omitted). This Court has previously faced cases where governments have sought to test these foundational principles. In Barnette, the Court held that the State of West Virginia’s efforts to compel schoolchildren to salute the Nation’s flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance “in- vad[ed] the sphere of intellect and spirit which it is the purpose of the First Amendment... to reserve from all official control.” 319 U. S., at 642. State authorities had “transcend[ed] constitutional limitations on their powers.” 319 U. S., at 642. In Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston, Inc., 515 U. S. 557, the Court held that Massachusetts’s public accommodations statute could not be used to force veterans organizing a parade in Boston to include a group of gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals because the parade was pro- tected speech, and requiring the veterans to include voices they wished to exclude would impermissibly require them to “alter the expressive content of their parade.” Id., at 572–573. And in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, when the Boy Scouts sought to exclude assistant scoutmaster James Dale from membership after learning he was gay, the Court held the Boy Scouts to be “an expressive association” entitled to First Amendment protection. 530 U. S., at 656. The Court found that forc- ing the Scouts to include Mr. Dale would undoubtedly “interfere with [its] choice not to propound a point of view contrary to its beliefs.” Id.,  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 3 Syllabus at 654. These cases illustrate that the First Amendment protects an indi- vidual’s right to speak his mind regardless of whether the government considers his speech sensible and well intentioned or deeply “mis- guided,” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574, and likely to cause “anguish” or “in- calculable grief,” Snyder v. Phelps, 562 U. S. 443, 456. Generally, too, the government may not compel a person to speak its own preferred messages. See Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503, 505. Pp. 6–9. (b) Applying these principles to the parties’ stipulated facts, the Court agrees with the Tenth Circuit that the wedding websites Ms. Smith seeks to create qualify as pure speech protected by the First Amendment under this Court’s precedents. Ms. Smith’s websites will express and communicate ideas—namely, those that “celebrate and promote the couple’s wedding and unique love story” and those that “celebrat[e] and promot[e]” what Ms. Smith understands to be a mar- riage. Speech conveyed over the internet, like all other manner of speech, qualifies for the First Amendment’s protections. And the Court agrees with the Tenth Circuit that the wedding websites Ms. Smith seeks to create involve her speech, a conclusion supported by the parties’ stipulations, including that Ms. Smith intends to produce a final story for each couple using her own words and original artwork. While Ms. Smith’s speech may combine with the couple’s in a final product, an individual “does not forfeit constitutional protection simply by combining multifarious voices” in a single communication. Hurley, 515 U. S., at 569. Ms. Smith seeks to engage in protected First Amendment speech; Colorado seeks to compel speech she does not wish to provide. As the Tenth Circuit observed, if Ms. Smith offers wedding websites celebrat- ing marriages she endorses, the State intends to compel her to create custom websites celebrating other marriages she does not. 6 F. 4th 1160, 1178. Colorado seeks to compel this speech in order to “excis[e] certain ideas or viewpoints from the public dialogue.” Turner Broad- casting System, Inc. v. FCC, 512 U. S. 633, 642. Indeed, the Tenth Circuit recognized that the coercive “[e]liminati[on]” of dissenting ideas about marriage constitutes Colorado’s “very purpose” in seeking to apply its law to Ms. Smith. 6 F. 4th, at 1178. But while the Tenth Circuit thought that Colorado could compel speech from Ms. Smith consistent with the Constitution, this Court’s First Amendment prec- edents teach otherwise. In Hurley, Dale, and Barnette, the Court found that governments impermissibly compelled speech in violation of the First Amendment when they tried to force speakers to accept a mes- sage with which they disagreed. Here, Colorado seeks to put Ms. Smith to a similar choice. If she wishes to speak, she must either speak 4 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Syllabus as the State demands or face sanctions for expressing her own beliefs, sanctions that may include compulsory participation in “remedial... training,” filing periodic compliance reports, and paying monetary fines. That is an impermissible abridgement of the First Amendment’s right to speak freely. Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574. Under Colorado’s logic, the government may compel anyone who speaks for pay on a given topic to accept all commissions on that same topic—no matter the message—if the topic somehow implicates a cus- tomer’s statutorily protected trait. 6 F. 4th, at 1199 (Tymkovich, C. J., dissenting). Taken seriously, that principle would allow the govern- ment to force all manner of artists, speechwriters, and others whose services involve speech to speak what they do not believe on pain of penalty. The Court’s precedents recognize the First Amendment tol- erates none of that. To be sure, public accommodations laws play a vital role in realizing the civil rights of all Americans, and govern- ments in this country have a “compelling interest” in eliminating dis- crimination in places of public accommodation. Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U. S. 609, 628. This Court has recognized that public accommodations laws “vindicate the deprivation of personal dig- nity that surely accompanies denials of equal access to public estab- lishments.” Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241, 250 (internal quotation marks omitted). Over time, governments in this country have expanded public accommodations laws in notable ways. Statutes like Colorado’s grow from nondiscrimination rules the common law sometimes imposed on common carriers and places of tra- ditional public accommodation like hotels and restaurants. Dale, 530 U. S., at 656–657. Often, these enterprises exercised something like monopoly power or hosted or transported others or their belongings. See, e.g., Liverpool & Great Western Steam Co. v. Phenix Ins. Co., 129 U. S. 397, 437. Importantly, States have also expanded their laws to prohibit more forms of discrimination. Today, for example, approxi- mately half the States have laws like Colorado’s that expressly pro- hibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. The Court has recognized this is “unexceptional.” Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Col- orado Civil Rights Comm’n, 584 U. S. ___, ___. States may “protect gay persons, just as [they] can protect other classes of individuals, in acquiring whatever products and services they choose on the same terms and conditions as are offered to other members of the public. And there are no doubt innumerable goods and services that no one could argue implicate the First Amendment.” Ibid. At the same time, this Court has also long recognized that no public accommodations law is immune from the demands of the Constitution. In particular, this Court has held, public accommodations statutes can sweep too broadly when deployed to compel speech. See, e.g., Hurley, 515 U. S., at 571,  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 5 Syllabus 578; Dale, 530 U. S., at 659. As in those cases, when Colorado’s public accommodations law and the Constitution collide, there can be no question which must prevail. U. S. Const. Art. VI, §2. As the Tenth Circuit saw it, Colorado has a compelling interest in ensuring “equal access to publicly available goods and services,” and no option short of coercing speech from Ms. Smith can satisfy that in- terest because she plans to offer “unique services” that are, “by defini- tion, unavailable elsewhere.” 6 F. 4th, at 1179–1180 (internal quota- tion marks omitted). In some sense, of course, her voice is unique; so is everyone’s. But that hardly means a State may coopt an individual’s voice for its own purposes. The speaker in Hurley had an “enviable” outlet for speech, and the Boy Scouts in Dale offered an arguably unique experience, but in both cases this Court held that the State could not use its public accommodations statute to deny a speaker the right “to choose the content of his own message.” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 573; see Dale, 530 U. S., at 650–656. A rule otherwise would conscript any unique voice to disseminate the government’s preferred messages in violation of the First Amendment. Pp. 9–15. (c) Colorado now seems to acknowledge that the First Amendment does prohibit it from coercing Ms. Smith to create websites expressing any message with which she disagrees. Alternatively, Colorado con- tends, Ms. Smith must simply provide the same commercial product to all, which she can do by repurposing websites celebrating marriages she does endorse for marriages she does not. Colorado’s theory rests on a belief that this case does not implicate pure speech, but rather the sale of an ordinary commercial product, and that any burden on Ms. Smith’s speech is purely “incidental.” On the State’s telling, then, speech more or less vanishes from the picture—and, with it, any need for First Amendment scrutiny. Colorado’s alternative theory, however, does not sit easily with its stipulation that Ms. Smith does not seek to sell an ordinary commercial good but intends to create “customized and tailored” expressive speech for each couple “to celebrate and promote the couple’s wedding and unique love story.” Colorado seeks to compel just the sort of speech that it tacitly concedes lies beyond its reach. The State stresses that Ms. Smith offers her speech for pay and does so through 303 Creative LLC, a company in which she is “the sole member-owner.” But many of the world’s great works of literature and art were created with an expectation of compensation. And speakers do not shed their First Amendment protections by employing the cor- porate form to disseminate their speech. Colorado urges the Court to look at the reason Ms. Smith refuses to offer the speech it seeks to compel, and it claims that the reason is that she objects to the “pro- tected characteristics” of certain customers. But the parties’ stipula- 6 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Syllabus tions state, to the contrary, that Ms. Smith will gladly conduct busi- ness with those having protected characteristics so long as the custom graphics and websites she is asked to create do not violate her beliefs. Ms. Smith stresses that she does not create expressions that defy any of her beliefs for any customer, whether that involves encouraging vi- olence, demeaning another person, or promoting views inconsistent with her religious commitments. The First Amendment’s protections belong to all, not just to speak- ers whose motives the government finds worthy. In this case, Colorado seeks to force an individual to speak in ways that align with its views but defy her conscience about a matter of major significance. In the past, other States in Barnette, Hurley, and Dale have similarly tested the First Amendment’s boundaries by seeking to compel speech they thought vital at the time. But abiding the Constitution’s commitment to the freedom of speech means all will encounter ideas that are “mis- guided, or even hurtful.” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574. Consistent with the First Amendment, the Nation’s answer is tolerance, not coercion. The First Amendment envisions the United States as a rich and com- plex place where all persons are free to think and speak as they wish, not as the government demands. Colorado cannot deny that promise consistent with the First Amendment. Pp. 15–19, 24–25. 6 F. 4th 1160, reversed. GORSUCH, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which ROBERTS, C. J., and THOMAS, ALITO, KAVANAUGH, and BARRETT, JJ., joined. SO- TOMAYOR, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which KAGAN and JACKSON, JJ., joined.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 1 Opinion of the Court NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. C. 20543, [email protected], of any typographical or other formal errors. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES _________________ No. 21–476 _________________ 303 CREATIVE LLC, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. AUBREY ELENIS, ET AL. ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE TENTH CIRCUIT [June 30, 2023] JUSTICE GORSUCH delivered the opinion of the Court. Like many States, Colorado has a law forbidding busi- nesses from engaging in discrimination when they sell goods and services to the public. Laws along these lines have done much to secure the civil rights of all Americans. But in this particular case Colorado does not just seek to ensure the sale of goods or services on equal terms. It seeks to use its law to compel an individual to create speech she does not believe. The question we face is whether that course violates the Free Speech Clause of the First Amend- ment. I A Through her business, 303 Creative LLC, Lorie Smith of- fers website and graphic design, marketing advice, and so- cial media management services. Recently, she decided to expand her offerings to include services for couples seeking websites for their weddings. As she envisions it, her web- sites will provide couples with text, graphic arts, and videos to “celebrate” and “conve[y ]” the “details” of their “unique love story.” App. to Pet. for Cert. 182a, 187a, 198a. The 2 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court websites will discuss how the couple met, explain their backgrounds, families, and future plans, and provide infor- mation about their upcoming wedding. All of the text and graphics on these websites will be “original,” “customized,” and “tailored” creations. Id., at 187a. The websites will be “expressive in nature,” designed “to communicate a partic- ular message.” Id., at 181a. Viewers will know, too, “that the websites are [Ms. Smith’s] original artwork,” for the name of the company she owns and operates by herself will be displayed on every one. Id., at 187a. While Ms. Smith has laid the groundwork for her new venture, she has yet to carry out her plans. She worries that, if she does so, Colorado will force her to express views with which she disagrees. Ms. Smith provides her website and graphic services to customers regardless of their race, creed, sex, or sexual orientation. Id., at 184a. But she has never created expressions that contradict her own views for anyone—whether that means generating works that en- courage violence, demean another person, or defy her reli- gious beliefs by, say, promoting atheism. See ibid.; see also Tr. of Oral Arg. 19–20. Ms. Smith does not wish to do oth- erwise now, but she worries Colorado has different plans. Specifically, she worries that, if she enters the wedding website business, the State will force her to convey mes- sages inconsistent with her belief that marriage should be reserved to unions between one man and one woman. App. to Pet. for Cert. 177a–190a. Ms. Smith acknowledges that her views about marriage may not be popular in all quar- ters. But, she asserts, the First Amendment’s Free Speech Clause protects her from being compelled to speak what she does not believe. The Constitution, she insists, protects her right to differ. B To clarify her rights, Ms. Smith filed a lawsuit in federal  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 3 Opinion of the Court district court. In that suit, she sought an injunction to pre- vent the State from forcing her to create wedding websites celebrating marriages that defy her beliefs. App. 303–305. To secure relief, Ms. Smith first had to establish her stand- ing to sue. That required her to show “a credible threat” existed that Colorado would, in fact, seek to compel speech from her that she did not wish to produce. Susan B. An- thony List v. Driehaus, 573 U. S. 149, 159 (2014). Toward that end, Ms. Smith began by directing the court to the Colorado Anti-Discrimination Act (CADA). That law defines a “public accommodation” broadly to include almost every public-facing business in the State. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(1) (2022). In what some call its “Accommoda- tion Clause,” the law prohibits a public accommodation from denying “the full and equal enjoyment” of its goods and services to any customer based on his race, creed, disability, sexual orientation, or other statutorily enumerated trait. §24–34–601(2)(a). Either state officials or private citizens may bring actions to enforce the law. §§24–34–306, 24–34– 602(1). And a variety of penalties can follow. Courts can order fines up to $500 per violation. §24–34–602(1)(a). The Colorado Commission on Civil Rights can issue cease-and- desist orders, §24–34–306(9), and require violators to take various other “affirmative action[s].” §24–34–605; §24–34– 306(9). In the past, these have included participation in mandatory educational programs and the submission of on- going compliance reports to state officials. See Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Comm’n, 584 U. S. ___, ___ (2018) (slip op., at 8).1 —————— 1 In addition to the Accommodation Clause, CADA contains a “Com- munication Clause” that prohibits a public accommodation from “pub- lish[ing]... any written... communication” indicating that a person will be denied “the full and equal enjoyment” of services or that he will be “unwelcome, objectionable, unacceptable, or undesirable” based on a pro- 4 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court In her lawsuit, Ms. Smith alleged that, if she enters the wedding website business to celebrate marriages she does endorse, she faces a credible threat that Colorado will seek to use CADA to compel her to create websites celebrating marriages she does not endorse. 6 F. 4th 1160, 1173–1174 (CA10 2021). As evidence, Ms. Smith pointed to Colorado’s record of past enforcement actions under CADA, including one that worked its way to this Court five years ago. See Masterpiece Cakeshop, 584 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 9); see also App. 25–155 (discussing Colorado’s other past enforce- ment actions). To facilitate the district court’s resolution of the merits of her case, Ms. Smith and the State stipulated to a number of facts:  Ms. Smith is “willing to work with all people regard- less of classifications such as race, creed, sexual ori- entation, and gender,” and she “will gladly create custom graphics and websites” for clients of any sex- ual orientation. App. to Pet. for Cert. 184a.  She will not produce content that “contradicts bibli- cal truth” regardless of who orders it. Ibid.  Her belief that marriage is a union between one man and one woman is a sincerely held religious convic- tion. Id., at 179a.  All of the graphic and website design services Ms. Smith provides are “expressive.” Id., at 181a.  The websites and graphics Ms. Smith designs are “original, customized” creations that “contribut[e] to the overall messages” her business conveys “through the websites” it creates. Id., at 181a–182a. —————— tected classification. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(2)(a) (2022). The Com- munication Clause, Ms. Smith notes, prohibits any speech inconsistent with the Accommodation Clause. Because Colorado concedes that its au- thority to apply the Communication Clause to Ms. Smith stands or falls with its authority to apply the Accommodation Clause, see Brief for Re- spondents 44–45, we focus our attention on the Accommodation Clause.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 5 Opinion of the Court  Just like the other services she provides, the wed- ding websites Ms. Smith plans to create “will be ex- pressive in nature.” Id., at 187a.  Those wedding websites will be “customized and tai- lored” through close collaboration with individual couples, and they will “express Ms. Smith’s and 303 Creative’s message celebrating and promoting” her view of marriage. Id., at 186a–187a.  Viewers of Ms. Smith’s websites “will know that the websites are [Ms. Smith’s and 303 Creative’s] origi- nal artwork.” Id., at 187a.  To the extent Ms. Smith may not be able to provide certain services to a potential customer, “[t]here are numerous companies in the State of Colorado and across the nation that offer custom website design services.” Id., at 190a. C Ultimately, the district court ruled against Ms. Smith. 405 F. Supp. 3d 907, 912 (Colo. 2019). So did the Tenth Circuit. 6 F. 4th, at 1168. For its part, the Tenth Circuit held that Ms. Smith had standing to sue. In that court’s judgment, she had established a credible threat that, if she follows through on her plans to offer wedding website ser- vices, Colorado will invoke CADA to force her to create speech she does not believe or endorse. Id., at 1172–1175. The court pointed to the fact that “Colorado has a history of past enforcement against nearly identical conduct—i.e., Masterpiece Cakeshop”; that anyone in the State may file a complaint against Ms. Smith and initiate “a potentially burdensome administrative hearing” process; and that “Colorado [has] decline[d] to disavow future enforcement” proceedings against her. Id., at 1174. Before us, no party challenges these conclusions. Turning to the merits, however, the Tenth Circuit held that Ms. Smith was not entitled to the injunction she 6 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court sought. The court acknowledged that Ms. Smith’s planned wedding websites qualify as “pure speech” protected by the First Amendment. Id., at 1176. As a result, the court rea- soned, Colorado had to satisfy “strict scrutiny” before com- pelling speech from her that she did not wish to create. Id., at 1178. Under that standard, the court continued, the State had to show both that forcing Ms. Smith to create speech would serve a compelling governmental interest and that no less restrictive alternative exists to secure that in- terest. Ibid. Ultimately, a divided panel concluded that the State had carried these burdens. As the majority saw it, Colorado has a compelling interest in ensuring “equal ac- cess to publicly available goods and services,” and no option short of coercing speech from Ms. Smith can satisfy that in- terest because she plans to offer “unique services” that are, “by definition, unavailable elsewhere.” Id., at 1179–1180 (internal quotation marks omitted). Chief Judge Tymkovich dissented. He observed that “en- suring access to a particular person’s” voice, expression, or artistic talent has never qualified as “a compelling state in- terest” under this Court’s precedents. Id., at 1203. Nor, he submitted, should courts depart from those precedents now. “Taken to its logical end,” Chief Judge Tymkovich warned, his colleagues’ approach would permit the government to “regulate the messages communicated by all artists”—a re- sult he called “unprecedented.” Id., at 1204. We granted certiorari to review the Tenth Circuit’s dispo- sition. 595 U. S. ___ (2022). II The framers designed the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment to protect the “freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think.” Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, 530 U. S. 640, 660–661 (2000) (internal quotation marks omit- ted). They did so because they saw the freedom of speech “both as an end and as a means.” Whitney v. California,  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 7 Opinion of the Court 274 U. S. 357, 375 (1927) (Brandeis, J., concurring); see also 12 The Papers of James Madison 193–194 (C. Hobson & R. Rutland eds. 1979). An end because the freedom to think and speak is among our inalienable human rights. See, e.g., 4 Annals of Cong. 934 (1794) (Rep. Madison). A means be- cause the freedom of thought and speech is “indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth.” Whitney, 274 U. S., at 375 (Brandeis, J., concurring). By allowing all views to flourish, the framers understood, we may test and improve our own thinking both as individuals and as a Na- tion. For all these reasons, “[i]f there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation,” West Virginia Bd. of Ed. v. Barnette, 319 U. S. 624, 642 (1943), it is the principle that the government may not interfere with “an uninhibited marketplace of ideas,” McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U. S. 464, 476 (2014) (internal quotation marks omitted). From time to time, governments in this country have sought to test these foundational principles. In Barnette, for example, the Court faced an effort by the State of West Virginia to force schoolchildren to salute the Nation’s flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance. If the students refused, the State threatened to expel them and fine or jail their par- ents. Some families objected on the ground that the State sought to compel their children to express views at odds with their faith as Jehovah’s Witnesses. When the dispute arrived here, this Court offered a firm response. In seeking to compel students to salute the flag and recite a pledge, the Court held, state authorities had “transcend[ed] constitu- tional limitations on their powers.” 319 U. S., at 642. Their dictates “invade[d] the sphere of intellect and spirit which it is the purpose of the First Amendment... to reserve from all official control.” Ibid. A similar story unfolded in Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston, Inc., 515 U. S. 557 (1995). There, veterans organizing a St. Patrick’s Day pa- rade in Boston refused to include a group of gay, lesbian, 8 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court and bisexual individuals in their event. The group argued that Massachusetts’s public accommodations statute enti- tled it to participate in the parade as a matter of law. Id., at 560–561. Lower courts agreed. Id., at 561–566. But this Court reversed. Id., at 581. Whatever state law may de- mand, this Court explained, the parade was constitution- ally protected speech and requiring the veterans to include voices they wished to exclude would impermissibly require them to “alter the expressive content of their parade.” Id., at 572–573. The veterans’ choice of what to say (and not say) might have been unpopular, but they had a First Amendment right to present their message undiluted by views they did not share. Then there is Boy Scouts of America v. Dale. In that case, the Boy Scouts excluded James Dale, an assistant scout- master, from membership after learning he was gay. Mr. Dale argued that New Jersey’s public accommodations law required the Scouts to reinstate him. 530 U. S., at 644–645. The New Jersey Supreme Court sided with Mr. Dale, id., at 646–647, but again this Court reversed, id., at 661. The decision to exclude Mr. Dale may not have implicated pure speech, but this Court held that the Boy Scouts “is an ex- pressive association” entitled to First Amendment protec- tion. Id., at 656. And, the Court found, forcing the Scouts to include Mr. Dale would “interfere with [its] choice not to propound a point of view contrary to its beliefs.” Id., at 654. As these cases illustrate, the First Amendment protects an individual’s right to speak his mind regardless of whether the government considers his speech sensible and well intentioned or deeply “misguided,” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574, and likely to cause “anguish” or “incalculable grief,” Snyder v. Phelps, 562 U. S. 443, 456 (2011). Equally, the First Amendment protects acts of expressive association. See, e.g., Dale, 530 U. S., at 647–656; Hurley, 515 U. S., at 568–570, 579. Generally, too, the government may not com- pel a person to speak its own preferred messages. See  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 9 Opinion of the Court Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503, 505–506 (1969); see also, e.g., Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U. S. 241, 256 (1974); Wooley v. Maynard, 430 U. S. 705, 714 (1977); National Institute of Family and Life Advocates v. Becerra, 585 U. S. ___, ___ (2018) (NIFLA) (slip op., at 8). Nor does it matter whether the government seeks to compel a person to speak its mes- sage when he would prefer to remain silent or to force an individual to include other ideas with his own speech that he would prefer not to include. See Hurley, 515 U. S., at 568–570, 576; see also Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic & Institutional Rights, Inc., 547 U. S. 47, 63–64 (2006) (FAIR) (discussing cases). All that offends the First Amendment just the same. III Applying these principles to this case, we align ourselves with much of the Tenth Circuit’s analysis. The Tenth Cir- cuit held that the wedding websites Ms. Smith seeks to cre- ate qualify as “pure speech” under this Court’s precedents. 6 F. 4th, at 1176. We agree. It is a conclusion that flows directly from the parties’ stipulations. They have stipu- lated that Ms. Smith’s websites promise to contain “images, words, symbols, and other modes of expression.” App. to Pet. for Cert. 181a. They have stipulated that every website will be her “original, customized” creation. Id., at 181a– 182a. And they have stipulated that Ms. Smith will create these websites to communicate ideas—namely, to “cele- brate and promote the couple’s wedding and unique love story” and to “celebrat[e] and promot[e]” what Ms. Smith understands to be a true marriage. Id., at 186a–187a. A hundred years ago, Ms. Smith might have furnished her services using pen and paper. Those services are no less protected speech today because they are conveyed with a “voice that resonates farther than it could from any soap- box.” Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, 521 U. S. 844, 10 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court 870 (1997). All manner of speech—from “pictures, films, paintings, drawings, and engravings,” to “oral utterance and the printed word”—qualify for the First Amendment’s protections; no less can hold true when it comes to speech like Ms. Smith’s conveyed over the Internet. Kaplan v. Cal- ifornia, 413 U. S. 115, 119–120 (1973); see also Shurtleff v. Boston, 596 U. S. ___, ___–___ (2022) (slip op., at 7–8) (flags); Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Assn., 564 U. S. 786, 790 (2011) (video games); Hurley, 515 U. S., at 568– 570 (parades); Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U. S. 781, 790 (1989) (music); Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U. S. 495, 501–502 (1952) (movies). We further agree with the Tenth Circuit that the wedding websites Ms. Smith seeks to create involve her speech. 6 F. 4th, at 1181, and n. 5. Again, the parties’ stipulations lead the way to that conclusion. See App. to Pet. for Cert. 181a, 187a. As the parties have described it, Ms. Smith in- tends to “ve[t]” each prospective project to determine whether it is one she is willing to endorse. Id., at 185a. She will consult with clients to discuss “their unique stories as source material.” Id., at 186a. And she will produce a final story for each couple using her own words and her own “original artwork.” Id., at 182a–183a. Of course, Ms. Smith’s speech may combine with the couple’s in the final product. But for purposes of the First Amendment that changes nothing. An individual “does not forfeit constitu- tional protection simply by combining multifarious voices” in a single communication. Hurley, 515 U. S., at 569. As surely as Ms. Smith seeks to engage in protected First Amendment speech, Colorado seeks to compel speech Ms. Smith does not wish to provide. As the Tenth Circuit ob- served, if Ms. Smith offers wedding websites celebrating marriages she endorses, the State intends to “forc[e her] to create custom websites” celebrating other marriages she does not. 6 F. 4th, at 1178. Colorado seeks to compel this speech in order to “excis[e] certain ideas or viewpoints from  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 11 Opinion of the Court the public dialogue.” Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, 512 U. S. 633, 642 (1994). Indeed, the Tenth Circuit recognized that the coercive “[e]liminati[on]” of dissenting “ideas” about marriage constitutes Colorado’s “very pur- pose” in seeking to apply its law to Ms. Smith. 6 F. 4th, at 1178. We part ways with the Tenth Circuit only when it comes to the legal conclusions that follow. While that court thought Colorado could compel speech from Ms. Smith con- sistent with the Constitution, our First Amendment prece- dents laid out above teach otherwise. In Hurley, the Court found that Massachusetts impermissibly compelled speech in violation of the First Amendment when it sought to force parade organizers to accept participants who would “affec[t] the[ir] message.” 515 U. S., at 572. In Dale, the Court held that New Jersey intruded on the Boy Scouts’ First Amend- ment rights when it tried to require the group to “propound a point of view contrary to its beliefs” by directing its mem- bership choices. 530 U. S., at 654. And in Barnette, this Court found impermissible coercion when West Virginia re- quired schoolchildren to recite a pledge that contravened their convictions on threat of punishment or expulsion. 319 U. S., at 626–629. Here, Colorado seeks to put Ms. Smith to a similar choice: If she wishes to speak, she must either speak as the State demands or face sanctions for expressing her own beliefs, sanctions that may include compulsory par- ticipation in “remedial... training,” filing periodic compli- ance reports as officials deem necessary, and paying mone- tary fines. App. 120; supra, at 3. Under our precedents, that “is enough,” more than enough, to represent an imper- missible abridgment of the First Amendment’s right to speak freely. Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574. Consider what a contrary approach would mean. Under Colorado’s logic, the government may compel anyone who speaks for pay on a given topic to accept all commissions on that same topic—no matter the underlying message—if the 12 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court topic somehow implicates a customer’s statutorily protected trait. 6 F. 4th, at 1198 (Tymkovich, C. J., dissenting). Taken seriously, that principle would allow the government to force all manner of artists, speechwriters, and others whose services involve speech to speak what they do not be- lieve on pain of penalty. The government could require “an unwilling Muslim movie director to make a film with a Zi- onist message,” or “an atheist muralist to accept a commis- sion celebrating Evangelical zeal,” so long as they would make films or murals for other members of the public with different messages. Id., at 1199. Equally, the government could force a male website designer married to another man to design websites for an organization that advocates against same-sex marriage. See Brief for Petitioners 26– 27. Countless other creative professionals, too, could be forced to choose between remaining silent, producing speech that violates their beliefs, or speaking their minds and incurring sanctions for doing so. See, e.g., Brief for Cre- ative Professionals et al. as Amici Curiae 5–10; Brief for First Amendment Scholars as Amici Curiae 19–22. As our precedents recognize, the First Amendment tolerates none of that. In saying this much, we do not question the vital role pub- lic accommodations laws play in realizing the civil rights of all Americans. This Court has recognized that govern- ments in this country have a “compelling interest” in elim- inating discrimination in places of public accommodation. Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U. S. 609, 628 (1984); see also Hurley, 515 U. S., at 571–572. This Court has rec- ognized, too, that public accommodations laws “vindicate the deprivation of personal dignity that surely accompanies denials of equal access to public establishments.” Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241, 250 (1964) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also, e.g., Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U. S. 294 (1964); Newman v.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 13 Opinion of the Court Piggie Park Enterprises, Inc., 390 U. S. 400 (1968) (per cu- riam). Over time, governments in this country have expanded public accommodations laws in notable ways too. Statutes like Colorado’s grow from nondiscrimination rules the com- mon law sometimes imposed on common carriers and places of traditional public accommodation like hotels and restau- rants. Dale, 530 U. S., at 656–657. Often, these enterprises exercised something like monopoly power or hosted or transported others or their belongings much like bailees. See, e.g., Liverpool & Great Western Steam Co. v. Phenix Ins. Co., 129 U. S. 397, 437 (1889); Primrose v. Western Un- ion Telegraph Co., 154 U. S. 1, 14 (1894). Over time, some States, Colorado included, have expanded the reach of these nondiscrimination rules to cover virtually every place of business engaged in any sales to the public. Compare 1885 Colo. Sess. Laws pp. 132–133 (a short list of entities origi- nally bound by the State’s public accommodations law) with Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(1) (currently defining a public accommodation to include “any place of business engaged in any sales to the public”). Importantly, States have also expanded their laws to pro- hibit more forms of discrimination. Today, for example, ap- proximately half the States have laws like Colorado’s that expressly prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual ori- entation.2 And, as we have recognized, this is entirely “un- exceptional.” Masterpiece Cakeshop, 584 U. S., at ___ (slip —————— 2 Besides Colorado, this includes Cal. Civ. Code Ann. §51 (West 2020); Conn. Gen. Stat. §46a–81d (2021); Del. Code Ann., Tit. 6, §4504 (2019); Haw. Rev. Stat. §489–3 (Cum. Supp. 2021); Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 775, §5/1–102 (West 2021); Iowa Code §216.7 (2022); Me. Rev. Stat. Ann., Tit. 5, §4591 (2013); Md. State Govt. Code Ann. §20–304 (2021); Mass. Gen. Laws, ch. 272, §98 (2021); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. §37.2302 (West 2013); Minn. Stat. §363A.11 (2022); Nev. Rev. Stat. §651.070 (2017); N. H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §354–A:17 (2022); N. J. Stat. Ann. §10:5–12 (West 2013); N. M. Stat. Ann. §28–1–7 (2022); N. Y. Exec. Law Ann. §291(2) 14 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court op., at 10). States may “protect gay persons, just as [they] can protect other classes of individuals, in acquiring what- ever products and services they choose on the same terms and conditions as are offered to other members of the pub- lic. And there are no doubt innumerable goods and services that no one could argue implicate the First Amendment.” Ibid.; see also Hurley, 515 U. S., at 571–572; 6 F. 4th, at 1203 (Tymkovich, C. J., dissenting). Consistent with all of this, Ms. Smith herself recognizes that Colorado and other States are generally free to apply their public accommoda- tions laws, including their provisions protecting gay per- sons, to a vast array of businesses. Reply Brief 15; see Tr. of Oral Arg. 45–46. At the same time, this Court has also recognized that no public accommodations law is immune from the demands of the Constitution. In particular, this Court has held, public accommodations statutes can sweep too broadly when de- ployed to compel speech. In Hurley, the Court commented favorably on Massachusetts’ public accommodations law, but made plain it could not be “applied to expressive activ- ity” to compel speech. 515 U. S., at 571, 578. In Dale, the Court observed that New Jersey’s public accommodations law had many lawful applications but held that it could “not justify such a severe intrusion on the Boy Scouts’ rights to freedom of expressive association.” 530 U. S., at 659. And, once more, what was true in those cases must hold true here. When a state public accommodations law and the Constitution collide, there can be no question which must prevail. U. S. Const., Art. VI, cl. 2. Nor is it any answer, as the Tenth Circuit seemed to sup- pose, that Ms. Smith’s services are “unique.” 6 F. 4th, at —————— (West 2019); Ore. Rev. Stat. §659A.403 (2021); R. I. Gen. Laws §11–24– 2 (2002); Vt. Stat. Ann., Tit. 9, §4502(a) (2020); Va. Code Ann. §2.2–3904 (2022); Wash. Rev. Code §49.60.215 (2022); Wis. Stat. §106.52 (2019– 2020). See also Brief for Local Governments et al. as Amici Curiae 5 (noting that many local governments have enacted similar rules).  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 15 Opinion of the Court 1180. In some sense, of course, her voice is unique; so is everyone’s. But that hardly means a State may coopt an individual’s voice for its own purposes. In Hurley, the vet- erans had an “enviable” outlet for speech; after all, their pa- rade was a notable and singular event. 515 U. S., at 560, 577–578. In Dale, the Boy Scouts offered what some might consider a unique experience. 530 U. S., at 649–650. But in both cases this Court held that the State could not use its public accommodations statute to deny speakers the right “to choose the content of [their] own message[s].” Hur- ley, 515 U. S., at 573; see Dale, 530 U. S., at 650–656. Were the rule otherwise, the better the artist, the finer the writer, the more unique his talent, the more easily his voice could be conscripted to disseminate the government’s preferred messages. That would not respect the First Amendment; more nearly, it would spell its demise. IV Before us, Colorado appears to distance itself from the Tenth Circuit’s reasoning. Now, the State seems to acknowledge that the First Amendment does forbid it from coercing Ms. Smith to create websites endorsing same-sex marriage or expressing any other message with which she disagrees. See Brief for Respondents 12 (disclaiming any interest in “interfer[ing] with [Ms. Smith’s] choice to offer only websites of [her] own design”); see also Brief for United States as Amicus Curiae 19 (conceding that “constitutional concerns” would arise if Colorado “require[d] petitione[r] to design a website” that she “would not create or convey for any client”). Instead, Colorado devotes most of its efforts to advancing an alternative theory for affirmance. The State’s alternative theory runs this way. To comply with Colorado law, the State says, all Ms. Smith must do is repurpose websites she will create to celebrate marriages she does endorse for marriages she does not. She sells a product to some, the State reasons, so she must sell the 16 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court same product to all. Brief for Respondents 15, 20. At bot- tom, Colorado’s theory rests on a belief that the Tenth Cir- cuit erred at the outset when it said this case implicates pure speech. Id., at 19. Instead, Colorado says, this case involves only the sale of an ordinary commercial product and any burden on Ms. Smith’s speech is purely “inci- dental.” Id., at 18, 25–28; see Tr. of Oral Arg. 65, 97–98. On the State’s telling, then, speech more or less vanishes from the picture—and, with it, any need for First Amend- ment scrutiny. In places, the dissent seems to advance the same line of argument. Post, at 29 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.). This alternative theory, however, is difficult to square with the parties’ stipulations. As we have seen, the State has stipulated that Ms. Smith does not seek to sell an ordi- nary commercial good but intends to create “customized and tailored” speech for each couple. App. to Pet. for Cert. 181a, 187a. The State has stipulated that “[e]ach website 303 Creative designs and creates is an original, customized creation for each client.” Id., at 181a. The State has stipu- lated, too, that Ms. Smith’s wedding websites “will be ex- pressive in nature, using text, graphics, and in some cases videos to celebrate and promote the couple’s wedding and unique love story.” Id., at 187a. As the case comes to us, then, Colorado seeks to compel just the sort of speech that it tacitly concedes lies beyond the reach of its powers. Of course, as the State emphasizes, Ms. Smith offers her speech for pay and does so through 303 Creative LLC, a company in which she is “the sole member-owner.” Id., at 181a; see also post, at 33 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.) (em- phasizing Ms. Smith’s “commercial” activity). But none of that makes a difference. Does anyone think a speechwriter loses his First Amendment right to choose for whom he works if he accepts money in return? Or that a visual artist who accepts commissions from the public does the same? Many of the world’s great works of literature and art were  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 17 Opinion of the Court created with an expectation of compensation. Nor, this Court has held, do speakers shed their First Amendment protections by employing the corporate form to disseminate their speech. This fact underlies our cases involving every- thing from movie producers to book publishers to newspa- pers. See, e.g., Joseph Burstyn, Inc., 343 U. S., at 497–503; Simon & Schuster, Inc. v. Members of N. Y. State Crime Vic- tims Bd., 502 U. S. 105, 114–116 (1991); Grosjean v. Amer- ican Press Co., 297 U. S. 233, 240–241, 249 (1936). Colorado next urges us to focus on the reason Ms. Smith refuses to offer the speech it seeks to compel. She refuses, the State insists, because she objects to the “protected char- acteristics” of certain customers. Brief for Respondents 16; see also post, at 26–27, 31–32 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.) (reciting the same argument). But once more, the parties’ stipulations speak differently. The parties agree that Ms. Smith “will gladly create custom graphics and websites for gay, lesbian, or bisexual clients or for organizations run by gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons so long as the custom graphics and websites” do not violate her beliefs. App. to Pet. for Cert. 184a. That is a condition, the parties acknowledge, Ms. Smith applies to “all customers.” Ibid. Ms. Smith stresses, too, that she has not and will not create expressions that defy any of her beliefs for any customer, whether that involves encouraging violence, demeaning an- other person, or promoting views inconsistent with her re- ligious commitments. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 18–20. Nor, in any event, do the First Amendment’s protections belong only to speakers whose motives the government finds wor- thy; its protections belong to all, including to speakers whose motives others may find misinformed or offensive. See Federal Election Comm’n v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., 551 U. S. 449, 468–469 (2007) (opinion of ROBERTS, C. J.) (observing that “a speaker’s motivation is entirely ir- relevant” (internal quotation marks omitted)); National So- cialist Party of America v. Skokie, 432 U. S. 43, 43–44 18 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court (1977) (per curiam) (upholding free-speech rights of partic- ipants in a Nazi parade); Snyder, 562 U. S., at 456–457 (same for protestors of a soldier’s funeral).3 Failing all else, Colorado suggests that this Court’s deci- sion in FAIR supports affirmance. See also post, at 25–26 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.) (making the same argument). In FAIR, a group of schools challenged a law requiring them, as a condition of accepting federal funds, to permit military recruiters space on campus on equal terms with other potential employers. 547 U. S., at 51–52, 58. The only expressive activity required of the law schools, the Court found, involved the posting of logistical notices along these lines: “ ‘The U. S. Army recruiter will meet interested students in Room 123 at 11 a.m.’ ” Id., at 61–62. And, the Court reasoned, compelled speech of this sort was “inci- dental” and a “far cry” from the speech at issue in our “lead- ing First Amendment precedents [that] have established the principle that freedom of speech prohibits the govern- ment from telling people what they must say.” Ibid.; see also NIFLA, 585 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 8). It is a far cry from this case too. To be sure, our cases have held that the government may sometimes “requir[e] —————— 3 The dissent labels the distinction between status and message “amus- ing” and “embarrassing.” Post, at 32. But in doing so, the dissent ignores a fundamental feature of the Free Speech Clause. While it does not pro- tect status-based discrimination unrelated to expression, generally it does protect a speaker’s right to control her own message—even when we may disapprove of the speaker’s motive or the message itself. The dis- sent’s derision is no answer to any of this. It ignores, too, the fact that Colorado itself has, in other contexts, distinguished status-based dis- crimination (forbidden) from the right of a speaker to control his own message (protected). See App. 131, 137, 140, 143–144, 149, 152, 154. (Truth be told, even the dissent acknowledges “th[is] distinction” else- where in its opinion. Post, at 31, n. 11.) Nor is the distinction unusual in societies committed both to nondiscrimination rules and free expres- sion. See, e.g., Lee v. Ashers Baking Co. Ltd., UKSC 49, p. 14 (“The less favourable treatment was afforded to the message not to the man.”). Does the dissent really find all that amusing and embarrassing?  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 19 Opinion of the Court the dissemination of purely factual and uncontroversial in- formation,” particularly in the context of “commercial ad- vertising.” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 573 (internal quotation marks omitted); see also NIFLA, 585 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 8); Riley v. National Federation of Blind of N. C., Inc., 487 U. S. 781, 795–796 (1988). But this case involves noth- ing like that. Here, Colorado does not seek to impose an incidental burden on speech. It seeks to force an individual to “utter what is not in [her] mind” about a question of po- litical and religious significance. Barnette, 319 U. S., at 634. And that, FAIR reaffirmed, is something the First Amendment does not tolerate. No government, FAIR rec- ognized, may affect a “speaker’s message” by “forc[ing]” her to “accommodate” other views, 547 U. S., at 63; no govern- ment may “ ‘alter’ ” the “ ‘expressive content’ ” of her mes- sage, id., at 63–64 (alteration omitted); and no government may “interfer[e] with” her “desired message,” id., at 64. V It is difficult to read the dissent and conclude we are look- ing at the same case. Much of it focuses on the evolution of public accommodations laws, post, at 7–13, and the strides gay Americans have made towards securing equal justice under law, post, at 14–17. And, no doubt, there is much to applaud here. But none of this answers the question we face today: Can a State force someone who provides her own expressive services to abandon her conscience and speak its preferred message instead? When the dissent finally gets around to that question— more than halfway into its opinion—it reimagines the facts of this case from top to bottom. The dissent claims that Col- orado wishes to regulate Ms. Smith’s “conduct,” not her speech. Post, at 24–29. Forget Colorado’s stipulation that Ms. Smith’s activities are “expressive,” App. to Pet. for Cert. 181a, and the Tenth Circuit’s conclusion that the State 20 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court seeks to compel “pure speech,” 6 F. 4th, at 1176. The dis- sent chides us for deciding a pre-enforcement challenge. Post, at 23. But it ignores the Tenth Circuit’s finding that Ms. Smith faces a credible threat of sanctions unless she conforms her views to the State’s. 6 F. 4th, at 1172–1175. The dissent suggests (over and over again) that any burden on speech here is “incidental.” Post, at 24, 26–30, 32–33. All despite the Tenth Circuit’s finding that Colorado in- tends to force Ms. Smith to convey a message she does not believe with the “very purpose” of “[e]liminating... ideas” that differ from its own. 6 F. 4th, at 1178.4 Nor does the dissent’s reimagination end there. It claims that, “for the first time in its history,” the Court “grants a business open to the public” a “right to refuse to serve mem- bers of a protected class.” Post, at 1; see also id., at 26, n. 10, 35. Never mind that we do no such thing and Colorado itself has stipulated Ms. Smith will (as CADA requires) “work with all people regardless of... sexual orientation.” App. to Pet. for Cert. 184a. Never mind, too, that it is the dissent that would have this Court do something truly novel by al- lowing a government to coerce an individual to speak con- trary to her beliefs on a significant issue of personal convic- tion, all in order to eliminate ideas that differ from its own. There is still more. The dissent asserts that we “sweep under the rug petitioners’ challenge to CADA’s Communi- cation Clause.” Post, at 26. This despite the fact the parties and the Tenth Circuit recognized that Ms. Smith’s Commu- nication Clause challenge hinges on her Accommodation Clause challenge. (So much so that Colorado devoted less than two pages at the tail end of its brief to the Communi- cation Clause and the Tenth Circuit afforded it just three —————— 4 Perplexingly, too, the dissent suggests that, by recounting the Tenth Circuit’s conclusion on this score, we “misunderstan[d] this case” and “invo[ke]... Orwellian thought policing.” Post, at 34, n. 14.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 21 Opinion of the Court paragraphs in its free-speech analysis. See Brief for Re- spondents 44–45; 6 F. 4th, at 1182–1183.)5 The dissent even suggests that our decision today is akin to endorsing a “separate but equal” regime that would allow law firms to refuse women admission into partnership, restaurants to deny service to Black Americans, or businesses seeking em- ployees to post something like a “White Applicants Only” sign. Post, at 1, 16–21, 26, 28–29, 32, and n. 13, 37. Pure fiction all. In some places, the dissent gets so turned around about the facts that it opens fire on its own position. For instance: While stressing that a Colorado company cannot refuse “the full and equal enjoyment of [its] services” based on a cus- tomer’s protected status, post, at 27, the dissent assures us that a company selling creative services “to the public” does have a right “to decide what messages to include or not to include,” post, at 28. But if that is true, what are we even debating? Instead of addressing the parties’ stipulations about the case actually before us, the dissent spends much of its time adrift on a sea of hypotheticals about photographers, sta- tioners, and others, asking if they too provide expressive services covered by the First Amendment. Post, at 27–29, 31–32, 37. But those cases are not this case. Doubtless, determining what qualifies as expressive activity protected —————— 5 Why does the dissent try to refocus this case around the Communica- tion Clause? Perhaps because the moment one acknowledges the parties’ stipulations—and the fact Colorado seeks to use its Accommodation Clause to compel speech in order to ensure conformity to its own views on a topic of major significance—the First Amendment implications be- come obvious. As does the fact that our case is nothing like a typical application of a public accommodations law requiring an ordinary, non- expressive business to serve all customers or consider all applicants. Our decision today does not concern—much less endorse—anything like the “ ‘straight couples only’ ” notices the dissent conjures out of thin air. Post, at 26, n. 10. Nor do the parties discuss anything of the sort in their stip- ulations. 22 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court by the First Amendment can sometimes raise difficult ques- tions. But this case presents no complication of that kind. The parties have stipulated that Ms. Smith seeks to engage in expressive activity. And the Tenth Circuit has recog- nized her services involve “pure speech.” See supra, at 6, 9. Nothing the dissent says can alter this—nor can it displace the First Amendment protections that follow. The dissent’s treatment of precedent parallels its han- dling of the facts. Take its remarkable suggestion that a government forcing an individual to create speech on weighty issues with which she disagrees—all, as the Tenth Circuit found, with the goal of “[e]liminating” views it does not share, 6 F. 4th, at 1178—only “incidental[ly]” burdens First Amendment liberties. Post, at 26–35. Far from em- bracing a notion like that, our cases have rejected it time after time—including in the context of public accommoda- tions laws. See Parts II–IV, supra; FAIR, 547 U. S., at 61– 64 (no government may affect a “speaker’s own message” by “forc[ing]” her to “accommodate” views she does not hold); Hurley, 515 U. S., at 563, 566 (using a public accommoda- tions law to compel parade organizers to include speech they did not believe was no mere “ ‘incidental’ ” infringe- ment on First Amendment rights); Dale, 530 U. S., at 659 (employing a public accommodations law to require the Boy Scouts to alter their admissions policies had more than “an incidental effect on protected speech”).6 —————— 6 The dissent observes that public accommodations laws may some- times touch on speech incidentally as they work to ensure ordinary, non- expressive goods and services are sold on equal terms. Cf. post, at 24–27 (citing Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc., 564 U. S. 552 (2011); Rumsfeld v. FAIR, 547 U. S. 47 (2006); United States v. O’Brien, 391 U. S. 367 (1968)). But as Hurley observed, there is nothing “incidental” about an infringe- ment on speech when a public accommodations law is applied “pecu- liar[ly]” to compel expressive activity. Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston, Inc., 515 U. S. 557, 572 (1995).  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 23 Opinion of the Court When it finally gets around to discussing these control- ling precedents, the dissent offers a wholly unpersuasive attempt to distinguish them. The First Amendment protec- tions furnished in Barnette, Hurley, and Dale, the dissent declares, were limited to schoolchildren and “nonprofit[s],” and it is “dispiriting” to think they might also apply to Ms. Smith’s “commercial” activity. Post, at 32–35. But our precedents endorse nothing like the limits the dissent would project on them. Instead, as we have seen, the First Amendment extends to all persons engaged in expressive conduct, including those who seek profit (such as speechwriters, artists, and website designers). See supra, at 16–17. If anything is truly dispiriting here, it is the dis- sent’s failure to take seriously this Court’s enduring com- mitment to protecting the speech rights of all comers, no matter how controversial—or even repugnant—many may find the message at hand. Finally, the dissent comes out and says what it really means: Once Ms. Smith offers some speech, Colorado “would require [her] to create and sell speech, notwith- standing [her] sincere objection to doing so”—and the dis- sent would force her to comply with that demand. Post, at 29–30. Even as it does so, however, the dissent refuses to acknowledge where its reasoning leads. In a world like that, as Chief Judge Tymkovich highlighted, governments could force “an unwilling Muslim movie director to make a —————— The dissent notes that our case law has not sustained every First Amend- ment objection to an antidiscrimination rule, as with a law firm that sought to exclude women from partnership. Post, at 19–21 (citing Hishon v. King & Spalding, 467 U. S. 69 (1984); Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U. S. 609 (1984)). But the dissent disregards Dale’s holding that context matters and that very different considerations come into play when a law is used to force individuals to toe the government’s preferred line when speaking (or associating to express themselves) on matters of significance. Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, 530 U. S. 640, 648–653 (2000). 24 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court film with a Zionist message,” they could compel “an atheist muralist to accept a commission celebrating Evangelical zeal,” and they could require a gay website designer to cre- ate websites for a group advocating against same-sex mar- riage, so long as these speakers would accept commissions from the public with different messages. 6 F. 4th, at 1199 (dissenting opinion). Perhaps the dissent finds these possi- bilities untroubling because it trusts state governments to coerce only “enlightened” speech. But if that is the calcula- tion, it is a dangerous one indeed.7 The dissent is right about one thing—“[w]hat a differ- ence” time can make. See post, at 2 (internal quotation marks omitted). Eighty years ago in Barnette, this Court affirmed that “no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion.” 319 U. S., at 642. The Court did so despite the fact that the speech rights it defended were deeply unpopular; at the time, the world was at war and many thought respect for the flag and the pledge “essential for the welfare of the state.” Id., at 662–663 (Frankfurter, J., dissenting); see also id., at 636, 640 (majority opinion). Fifty years ago, this Court protected the right of Nazis to march through a town home to many Holocaust survivors and along the way espouse ideas antithetical to those for —————— 7 Perhaps the dissent finds these possibilities untroubling for another reason. It asserts that CADA does not apply to “[m]any filmmakers, vis- ual artists, and writers” because they do not “hold out” their services to the public. Post, at 27. But the dissent cites nothing to support its claim and instead, once more, fights the facts. As we have seen, Colorado’s law today applies to “any place of business engaged in any sales to the pub- lic.” Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(1) (emphasis added); see also Part III, supra. And the dissent can hardly dispute that many artists and writers accept commissions from the public. Brief for Creative Professionals et al. as Amici Curiae 5–21. Certainly, Colorado does not advance any- thing like the dissent’s argument; it calls any exemption to its law for “artists” and others who provide “custom” services “unworkable.” Brief for Respondents 28–31 (internal quotation marks omitted).  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 25 Opinion of the Court which this Nation stands. See Skokie, 432 U. S., at 43–44; supra, at 17–18. Five years ago, in a case the dissenters highlight at the outset of their opinion, the Court stressed that “it is not... the role of the State or its officials to pre- scribe what shall be offensive.” Masterpiece Cakeshop, 584 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 16). And just days ago, Members of today’s dissent joined in holding that the First Amend- ment restricts how States may prosecute stalkers despite the “harm[ful],” “low-value,” and “upsetting” nature of their speech. Counterman v. Colorado, 600 U. S. ___, ___ (2023) (slip op., at 6); id., at ___ (SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (slip op., at 5). Today, however, the dissent abandons what this Court’s cases have recognized time and time again: A commitment to speech for only some messages and some persons is no commitment at all. By approving a government’s effort to “[e]liminat[e]” disfavored “ideas,” 6 F. 4th, at 1178, today’s dissent is emblematic of an unfortunate tendency by some to defend First Amendment values only when they find the speaker’s message sympathetic. But “[i]f liberty means an- ything at all, it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.” 6 F. 4th, at 1190 (Tymkovich, C. J., dis- senting) (quoting G. Orwell). * In this case, Colorado seeks to force an individual to speak in ways that align with its views but defy her con- science about a matter of major significance. In the past, other States in Barnette, Hurley, and Dale have similarly tested the First Amendment’s boundaries by seeking to compel speech they thought vital at the time. But, as this Court has long held, the opportunity to think for ourselves and to express those thoughts freely is among our most cherished liberties and part of what keeps our Republic strong. Of course, abiding the Constitution’s commitment to the freedom of speech means all of us will encounter ideas 26 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS Opinion of the Court we consider “unattractive,” post, at 38 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.), “misguided, or even hurtful,” Hurley, 515 U. S., at 574. But tolerance, not coercion, is our Nation’s answer. The First Amendment envisions the United States as a rich and complex place where all persons are free to think and speak as they wish, not as the government de- mands. Because Colorado seeks to deny that promise, the judgment is Reversed.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 1 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES _________________ No. 21–476 _________________ 303 CREATIVE LLC, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. AUBREY ELENIS, ET AL. ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE TENTH CIRCUIT [June 30, 2023] JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR, with whom JUSTICE KAGAN and JUSTICE JACKSON join, dissenting. Five years ago, this Court recognized the “general rule” that religious and philosophical objections to gay marriage “do not allow business owners and other actors in the econ- omy and in society to deny protected persons equal access to goods and services under a neutral and generally appli- cable public accommodations law.” Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colorado Civil Rights Comm’n, 584 U. S. ___, ___ (2018) (slip op., at 9). The Court also recognized the “seri- ous stigma” that would result if “purveyors of goods and ser- vices who object to gay marriages for moral and religious reasons” were “allowed to put up signs saying ‘no goods or services will be sold if they will be used for gay marriages.’ ” Id., at ___ (slip op., at 12). Today, the Court, for the first time in its history, grants a business open to the public a constitutional right to refuse to serve members of a protected class. Specifically, the Court holds that the First Amendment exempts a website- design company from a state law that prohibits the com- pany from denying wedding websites to same-sex couples if the company chooses to sell those websites to the public. The Court also holds that the company has a right to post a notice that says, “ ‘no [wedding websites] will be sold if they will be used for gay marriages.’ ” Ibid. 2 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting “What a difference five years makes.” Carson v. Makin, 596 U. S. ___, ___ (2022) (SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting) (slip op., at 5). And not just at the Court. Around the country, there has been a backlash to the movement for liberty and equality for gender and sexual minorities. New forms of inclusion have been met with reactionary exclusion. This is heartbreaking. Sadly, it is also familiar. When the civil rights and women’s rights movements sought equality in public life, some public establishments refused. Some even claimed, based on sincere religious beliefs, constitutional rights to discriminate. The brave Justices who once sat on this Court decisively rejected those claims. Now the Court faces a similar test. A business open to the public seeks to deny gay and lesbian customers the full and equal enjoyment of its services based on the owner’s religious belief that same-sex marriages are “false.” The business argues, and a majority of the Court agrees, that because the business offers services that are customized and expressive, the Free Speech Clause of the First Amend- ment shields the business from a generally applicable law that prohibits discrimination in the sale of publicly availa- ble goods and services. That is wrong. Profoundly wrong. As I will explain, the law in question targets conduct, not speech, for regulation, and the act of discrimination has never constituted protected expression under the First Amendment. Our Constitution contains no right to refuse service to a disfavored group. I dissent. I A A “public accommodations law” is a law that guarantees to every person the full and equal enjoyment of places of public accommodation without unjust discrimination. The American people, through their elected representatives, have enacted such laws at all levels of government: The federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Americans with  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 3 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibit discrimination by places of public accommodation on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or disability.1 All but five States have analogous laws that prohibit discrimination on the basis of these and other traits, such as age, sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity.2 And numerous local laws offer similar protections. The people of Colorado have adopted the Colorado Anti- Discrimination Act (CADA), which provides: “It is a discriminatory practice and unlawful for a person, directly or indirectly, to refuse, withhold from, —————— 1 See 42 U. S. C. §2000a et seq. (Title II of Civil Rights Act of 1964); 42 U. S. C. §12181 et seq. (Title III of Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990). 2 See Alaska Stat. §18.80.230 (2023); Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §41–1442 (2017); Ark. Code Ann. §16–123–107 (Supp. 2021); Cal. Civ. Code Ann. §51 (West 2020); Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601 (2022); Conn. Gen. Stat. §§46a–64, 46a–81d (Cum. Supp. 2023); Del. Code Ann., Tit. 6, §4504 (Cum. Supp. 2022); Fla. Stat. §§413.08, 760.08 (2022); Haw. Rev. Stat. §489–3 (Cum. Supp. 2021); Idaho Code Ann. §67–5909 (2020); Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 775, §5/1–102 (West Supp. 2021); Ind. Code §22–9–1–2 (2022); Iowa Code §216.7 (2023); Kan. Stat. Ann. §44–1001 (2021); Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§344.120, 344.145 (West 2018); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §51:2247 (West Cum. Supp. 2023); Me. Rev. Stat. Ann., Tit. 5, §4591 (Cum. Supp. 2023); Md. State Govt. Code Ann. §20–304 (2021); Mass. Gen. Laws, ch. 272, §98 (2020); Mich. Comp. Laws §§37.1102, 37.2302 (1981), as amended, 2023 Mich. Pub. Acts no. 6 (sine die); Minn. Stat. §363A.11 (2022); Mo. Rev. Stat. §213.065 (Cum. Supp. 2021); Mont. Code Ann. §49–2–304 (2021); Neb. Rev. Stat. §20–134 (2022); Nev. Rev. Stat. §651.070 (2017); N. H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §354–A:17 (2022); N. J. Stat. Ann. §10:5–12 (West Cum. Supp. 2023); N. M. Stat. Ann. §28–1–7 (2022); N. Y. Civ. Rights Law Ann. §40 (West 2019); N. D. Cent. Code Ann. §14–02.4–14 (2017); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §4112.02 (Lexis Supp. 2023); Okla. Stat., Tit. 25, §1402 (2011); Ore. Rev. Stat. §659A.403 (2021); Pa. Stat. Ann., Tit. 43, §953 (Purdon 2020); R. I. Gen. Laws §11–24–2 (2002); S. C. Code Ann. §45–9–10 (2016); S. D. Codified Laws §20–13–23 (2016); Tenn. Code Ann. §4–21–501 (2021); Utah Code §13–7–3 (2022); Vt. Stat. Ann., Tit. 9, §4502 (2020); Va. Code Ann. §2.2–3904 (2022); Wash. Rev. Code §49.60.215 (2022); W. Va. Code Ann. §5–11–2 (Lexis 2022); Wis. Stat. §106.52 (2019–2020); Wyo. Stat. Ann. §6–9–101 (2021). 4 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting or deny to an individual or a group, because of disabil- ity, race, creed, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, marital status, national origin, or ancestry, the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or ac- commodations of a place of public accommodation.” Colo. Rev. Stat. §24–34–601(2)(a). This provision, known as the Act’s “Accommodation Clause,” applies to any business engaged in sales “to the public.” §24–34–601(1). The Accommodation Clause does not apply to any “church, synagogue, mosque, or other place that is principally used for religious purposes.” Ibid. In addition, CADA contains what is referred to as the Act’s “Communication Clause,” which makes it unlawful to advertise that services “will be refused, withheld from, or denied,” or that an individual is “unwelcome” at a place of public accommodation, based on the same protected traits. §24–34–601(2)(a). In other words, just as a business open to the public may not refuse to serve customers based on race, religion, or sexual orientation, so too the business may not hang a sign that says, “No Blacks, No Muslims, No Gays.” A public accommodations law has two core purposes. First, the law ensures “equal access to publicly available goods and services.” Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U. S. 609, 624 (1984) (emphasis added). For social groups that face discrimination, such access is vital. All the more so if the group is small in number or if discrimination against the group is widespread. Equal access is mutually beneficial: Protected persons receive “equally effective and meaningful opportunity to benefit from all aspects of life in America,” 135 Cong. Rec. 8506 (1989) (remarks of Sen. Harkin) (Americans with Disabilities Act), and “society,” in return, receives “the benefits of wide participation in polit- ical, economic, and cultural life.” Roberts, 468 U. S., at 625.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 5 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting Second, a public accommodations law ensures equal dig- nity in the common market. Indeed, that is the law’s “fun- damental object”: “to vindicate ‘the deprivation of personal dignity that surely accompanies denials of equal access to public establishments.’ ” Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241, 250 (1964) (quoting S. Rep. No. 872, 88th Cong., 2d Sess., 16 (1964)). This purpose does not depend on whether goods or services are otherwise available. “ ‘Discrimination is not simply dollars and cents, hamburgers and movies; it is the humiliation, frustration, and embarrassment that a person must surely feel when he is told that he is unacceptable as a member of the public because of his [social identity]. It is equally the inability to explain to a child that regardless of education, civility, cour- tesy, and morality he will be denied the right to enjoy equal treatment.’ ” 379 U. S., at 292 (Goldberg, J., concurring). When a young Jewish girl and her parents come across a business with a sign out front that says, “ ‘No dogs or Jews allowed,’ ”3 the fact that another business might serve her family does not redress that “stigmatizing injury,” Roberts, 468 U. S., at 625. Or, put another way, “the hardship Jackie Robinson suffered when on the road” with his base- ball team “was not an inability to find some hotel that would have him; it was the indignity of not being allowed to stay in the same hotel as his white teammates.” J. Oleske, The Evolution of Accommodation, 50 Harv. Civ. Rights-Civ. Lib. L. Rev. 99, 138 (2015). To illustrate, imagine a funeral home in rural Mississippi agrees to transport and cremate the body of an elderly man who has passed away, and to host a memorial lunch. Upon learning that the man’s surviving spouse is also a man, however, the funeral home refuses to deal with the family. —————— 3 Hearings on the Nomination of Ruth Bader Ginsburg To Be Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 103d Cong., 1st Sess., 139 (1993). 6 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting Grief stricken, and now isolated and humiliated, the family desperately searches for another funeral home that will take the body. They eventually find one more than 70 miles away. See First Amended Complaint in Zawadski v. Brewer Funeral Services, Inc., No. 55CI1–17–cv–00019 (C. C. Pearl River Cty., Miss., Mar. 7, 2017), pp. 4–7.4 This ostracism, this otherness, is among the most distressing feelings that can be felt by our social species. K. Williams, Ostracism, 58 Ann. Rev. Psychology 425, 432–435 (2007). Preventing the “unique evils” caused by “acts of invidious discrimination in the distribution of publicly available goods, services, and other advantages” is a compelling state interest “of the highest order.” Roberts, 468 U. S., at 624, 628; see Board of Directors of Rotary Int’l v. Rotary Club of Duarte, 481 U. S. 537, 549 (1987). Moreover, a law that prohibits only such acts by businesses open to the public is narrowly tailored to achieve that compelling interest. The law “responds precisely to the substantive problem which legitimately concerns the State”: the harm from status- based discrimination in the public marketplace. Roberts, 468 U. S., at 629 (internal quotation marks omitted). This last aspect of a public accommodations law deserves special emphasis: The law regulates only businesses that choose to sell goods or services “to the general public,” e.g., Va. Code Ann. §2.2–3904, or “to the public,” e.g., Mich. Comp. Laws §37.2301. Some public accommodations laws, —————— 4 The men in this story are Robert “Bob” Huskey and John “Jack” Zawadski. Bob and Jack were a loving couple of 52 years. They moved from California to Colorado to care for Bob’s mother, then to Wisconsin to farm apples and teach special education, and then to Mississippi to retire. Within weeks of this Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U. S. 644 (2015), Bob and Jack got married. They were 85 and 81 years old on their wedding day. A few months later, Bob’s health took a turn. He died the following spring. When Bob’s family was forced to find an alternative funeral home more than an hour from where Bob and Jack lived, the lunch in Bob’s memory had to be canceled. Jack died the next year.  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 7 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting such as the federal Civil Rights Act, list establishments that qualify, but these establishments are ones open to the public generally. See, e.g., 42 U. S. C. §2000a(b) (hotels, restaurants, gas stations, movie theaters, concert halls, sports arenas, stadiums). A public accommodations law does not force anyone to start a business, or to hold out the business’s goods or services to the public at large. The law also does not compel any business to sell any particular good or service. But if a business chooses to profit from the public market, which is established and maintained by the state, the state may require the business to abide by a legal norm of nondiscrimination. In particular, the state may en- sure that groups historically marked for second-class status are not denied goods or services on equal terms. The concept of a public accommodation thus embodies a simple, but powerful, social contract: A business that chooses to sell to the public assumes a duty to serve the public without unjust discrimination. J. Singer, No Right To Exclude: Public Accommodations and Private Property, 90 Nw. U. L. Rev. 1283, 1298 (1996) (Singer). B The legal duty of a business open to the public to serve the public without unjust discrimination is deeply rooted in our history. The true power of this principle, however, lies in its capacity to evolve, as society comes to understand more forms of unjust discrimination and, hence, to include more persons as full and equal members of “the public.” 1 “At common law, innkeepers, smiths, and others who ‘made profession of a public employment,’ were prohibited from refusing, without good reason, to serve a customer.” Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston, Inc., 515 U. S. 557, 571 (1995) (quoting Lane v. Cotton, 12 Mod. 472, 485, 88 Eng. Rep. 1458, 1465 (K. B. 8 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting 1701) (Holt, C. J.)). “Public employment” meant a business “in which the owner has held himself out as ready to serve the public by exercising his trade.” Singer 1307; see, e.g., Gisbourn v. Hurst, 1 Salk. 249, 91 Eng. Rep. 220 (K. B. 1710). Take, for example, Lane v. Cotton, “[t]he leading English case” on the subject “cited over and over again in the nineteenth century in the United States.” Singer 1304. There, Lord Chief Justice Holt explained: “[W]here-ever any subject takes upon himself a pub- lic trust for the benefit of the rest of his fellow-subjects, he is eo ipso bound to serve the subject in all the things that are within the reach and comprehension of such an office, under pain of an action against him.... If on the road a shoe fall off my horse, and I come to a smith to have one put on, and the smith refuse to do it, an action will lie against him, because he has made pro- fession of a trade which is for the public good, and has thereby exposed and vested an interest of himself in all the King’s subjects that will employ him in the way of his trade.” Lane v. Cotton, 12 Mod., at 484, 88 Eng. Rep., at 1464. That is to say, a business’s duty to serve all comers derived from its choice to hold itself out as ready to serve the public. This holding-out rationale became firmly established in early American law. See 2 J. Kent, Commentaries on Amer- ican Law 464–465 (1827); J. Story, Commentaries on the Law of Bailments §§495, 591 (1832); see also, e.g., Mark- ham v. Brown, 8 N. H. 523, 528 (1837); Jencks v. Coleman, 13 F. Cas. 442, 443 (No. 7,258) (CC RI 1835) (Story, J.); Dwight v. Brewster, 18 Mass. 50, 53 (1822). The majority is therefore mistaken to suggest that public accommodations or common carriers historically assumed duties to serve all comers because they enjoyed monopolies or otherwise had market power. Ante, at 13. Tellingly, the majority cites no common-law case espousing the monopoly  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 9 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting rationale.5 That is because nowhere in the relevant case law “is monopoly suggested as the distinguishing character- istic.” E. Adler, Business Jurisprudence, 28 Harv. L. Rev. 135, 156 (1914) (“A distinction based on monopoly would re- quire proof that the common carrier had some kind of a mo- nopoly which the private carrier did not have, or that ‘com- mon’ was synonymous with ‘monopoly.’ The plain meaning of the cases is [instead that] the common was the public, the professional, the business carrier or other trader”).6 2 After the Civil War, some States codified the common-law duty of public accommodations to serve all comers. See M. Konvitz & T. Leskes, A Century of Civil Rights 155–157 (1961). Early state public accommodations statutes prohib- ited discrimination based on race or color. Yet the principle was at times stated more broadly: to provide “a remedy against any unjust discrimination to the citizen in all public places.” Ferguson v. Gies, 82 Mich. 358, 365, 46 N. W. 718, 720 (1890). In 1885, Colorado adopted “ ‘An Act to Protect All Citizens in Their Civil Rights,’ which guaranteed ‘full —————— 5 For example, a case on which the majority relies found that it could “shortly dispos[e]” of the question whether a steamship company was a common carrier because the company was “the owner of a general ship, carrying goods for hire... and perform[ing]” that service “regular[ly].” Liverpool & Great Western Steam Co. v. Phenix Ins. Co., 129 U. S. 397, 437 (1889). No showing of market power was required. Ibid. 6 Nor does “host[ing] or transport[ing] others and their belongings,” ante, at 13, explain the right of access. Smiths, for instance, did not al- ways practice their trade by holding property for others. And even when they did, any duty of care resulting from such bailment cannot explain the duty to serve all comers, which logically must be assumed before- hand. See Lane v. Cotton, 12 Mod. 472, 484, 88 Eng. Rep. 1458, 1464 (K. B. 1701) (Holt, C. J.). That duty instead came from somewhere else, and the weight of authority indicates that it came from a business’s act of holding itself out to the public as ready to serve anyone who would hire it. Singer 1304–1330; 3 W. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England 164 (1768); J. Story, Commentaries on the Law of Bailments §§495, 591 (1837); 1 T. Parsons, Law of Contracts 639, 643, 649 (1853). 10 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting and equal enjoyment’ of certain public facilities to ‘all citi- zens,’ ‘regardless of race, color or previous condition of ser- vitude.’ ” Masterpiece Cakeshop, 584 U. S., at ___–___ (slip op., at 4–5) (quoting 1885 Colo. Sess. Laws p. 132). “A dec- ade later, the [State] expanded the requirement to apply to ‘all other places of public accommodation.’ ” 584 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 5) (quoting 1895 Colo. Sess. Laws ch. 61, p. 139). Congress, too, passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which established “[t]hat all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement... applica- ble alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude.” Act of Mar. 1, 1875, §1, 18 Stat. 336. This Court, however, struck down the federal Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U. S. 3, 25 (1883). Southern States repealed public accom- modations statutes and replaced them with Jim Crow laws. And state courts construed any remaining right of access in ways that furthered de jure and de facto racial segregation.7 Full and equal enjoyment came to mean “separate but equal” enjoyment. The result of this backsliding was “the replacement of a general right of access with a general right to exclude... in order to promote a racial caste system.” Singer 1295. —————— 7 Compare, e.g., Chesapeake, O. & S. R. Co. v. Wells, 85 Tenn. 613, 615, 4 S. W. 5 (1887) (rejecting Ida B. Wells’s claim that she was denied “ ‘ac- commodations equal in all respects,’ ” when she tried to enter a train car “set apart for white ladies and their gentlemen” on account of tobacco smoke in her car, and was forcibly removed), with Memphis & C. R. Co. v. Benson, 85 Tenn. 627, 632, 4 S. W. 5, 7 (1887) (accepting that a white man would be permitted to ride standing in the ladies’ car on account of tobacco smoke in his car).  Cite as: 600 U. S. ____ (2023) 11 SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting In time, the civil rights movement of the mid-20th cen- tury again demanded racial equality in public places. In 1963, two decades after then–Howard University law stu- dent Pauli Murray organized sit-ins at cafeterias in Wash- ington, D. C., a diverse group of students and faculty from Tougaloo College sat at Woolworth’s lunch counter in Jack- son, Mississippi. For doing so, they were violently attacked by a white mob. See A. Moody, Coming of Age in Missis- sippi 235–240 (1992). Around the country, similar acts of protest against racial injustice, some big and some small, sought “to create such a crisis and foster such a tension” that the country would be “forced to confront the issue.” M. King, Letter from a Birmingham Jail, Apr. 16, 1963. That year, Congress once more set out to eradicate “discrimina- tion... in places of accommodation and public facilities,” Heart of Atlanta Motel, 379 U. S., at 246, notwithstanding this Court’s previous declaration of a federal public accom- modations law to be unconstitutional. Congress believed, rightly, that discrimination in places of public accommodation—“the injustice of being arbitrarily denied equal access to those facilities and accommodations which are otherwise open to the general public”—had “no place” in this country, the country “of the melting pot, of equal rights, of one nation and one people.” S. Rep. No. 872, at 8–9 (quoting President Kennedy, June 19, 1963). It therefore passed Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which declares: “All persons shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations of any place of public ac- commodation... without discrimination... on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin.” 42 U. S. C. §2000a. In enacting this landmark civil rights statute, Con- gress invoked the holding-out rationale from antebellum common law: “one who employed his private property for purposes of commercial gain by offering goods or services to the public must stick to his bargain.” S. Rep. No. 872, at 12 303 CREATIVE LLC v. ELENIS SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting 22; see also id., at 9–10 (endorsing Lord Holt’s view in Lane v. Cotton). This bargain, America would soon realize, had long ex- cluded half of society. Women, though having won the right to vote half a century earlier, were not equal in public. In- stead, a “separate-spheres ideology” had “assigned women to the home and men to the market.” E. Sepper & D. Din- ner, Sex in Public, 129 Yale L. J. 78, 83, 88–90 (2019) (Sep- per & Dinner). Women were excluded from restaurants, bars, civic and professional organizations, financial institu- tions, and sports. “Just as it did for the civil rights struggle, public accommodations served as kindling for feminist mo- bilization.” Id., at 83, 97–104; cf. S. Mayeri, Reasoning From Race: Feminism, Law, and the Civil Rights Revolu- tion 9–40 (2011). In response to a movement for women’s liberation, numerous States banned discrimination in pub- lic accommodations on the basis of “sex.” See Sepper & Din- ner 104, nn. 145–147 (collecting statutes). Colorado was the first State to do so. See 1969 Colo. Sess. Laws ch. 74, p. 200. In the decades that followed, the Nation opened its eyes to another injustice. People with disabilities, though inher- ently full and equal members of the public, had been ex- cluded from many areas of public life. This exclusion worked harms not only to disabled people’s st