1st Semester UG English Textbook PDF

1 Word and Image I Word and Image 1: Communicative English Handbook for I Semester BA Communicative English under Faculty of Arts is prepared by the Members of the Text Book Committee, Bengaluru Central University (BCU). © Bengaluru Central University First Edition: 2019 Published by: Bengaluru Central University Press Bengaluru Central University (BCU) Central College Campus Bengaluru -560 001. 2 FOREWORD Word and Image 1 Communicative English Hand Book for I Semester BA under Faculty of Arts, Bengaluru Central Uni- versity (BCU) has been designed to equip students with spoken and written skills, that will enable them to communicate effectively. This book has been designed to hone students’ grammar and pronunciation. This is the first Communicative English Hand Book for undergraduate students of BCU, Bengaluru, prepared by the Members of the Text Book Committee. I congratulate the Text Book Committee on its efforts in the preparation of the material, which includes - Basics of Grammar and Phonetics. I thank the Director of Bengaluru Central University Press and their personnel for bringing out the Text Book neatly and on time. I hope the text will motivate the teachers and the students to make the best use of it. Prof. S. Japhet Vice-Chancellor Bengaluru Central University Bengaluru-560001. 3 Word and Image I PREFACE The Communicative English Handbook for I Semester Communicative English, WORD AND IMAGE, introduces undergraduate students to the fundamentals of communication. The ‘Image’ in the title refers to the Communicative English Course as a whole in which writing for and on the visual media forms an integral part of the syllabus. Semester I spans 2 papers: the first paper re-orients students to the basics of English grammar and is geared towards equipping students with better communication skills and the best use of English in everyday situations; the second paper has its focus on Phonetics and Spoken English and aspires to help students acquire quality pronunciation and excellent speaking skills. I would like to thank the Chairperson and her team of teachers who have meticulously put together a meaningful syllabus, and a textbook which spells out specificities that frame the norms of effective speech and writing. I wish to thank the Vice Chancellor and the Registrar of BCU for their consistent support. I also thank the publisher, who helped us bring out the book on time. Prof. Chitra Panikkar Chairperson UG BOS in English BCU 4 Members of the Board of Studies Dr. Chitra Panikkar Chairperson Board of Studies in English, UG Bengaluru Central University (BCU) Bengaluru-560 001 1. Dr. Ramadevi. M. 5. Dr. Macquillin. C.D Government Arts College H.K.E.S Veerendra Patil Dr. Ambedkar Veedhi, Degree College, Bengaluru- 560 001. Sadashivanagar, Bengaluru- 560 080. 2. Prof. M. Shivaprasad Vivekananda Degree College, 6. Dr. R. Rajaram Dr. Rajkumar Road, St. Joseph’s College of Commerce Bengaluru-560 055. (Autonomous) Bengaluru- 560 025. 3. Prof. Mah Jabeen B.M.S College for Women, 7. Dr. N.S. Gundur Bengaluru- 560 004. Tumkur University, Tumkur -572 102. 4. Prof. C.P. Usharani S.J.R.College of Arts, Science 8. Prof. Kannan and Commerce, Akkamahadevi Women’s University, Race Course Road, Jnana Shakthi Campus, Tonvi, Bengaluru-560 009. Vijayapura - 585 101. 5 Word and Image I Members of the Text Book Committee Manjula Veerappa Chairperson Associate Professor Vijaya College, Jayanagar, Bengaluru 560 011. Dr. Rama Devi Member-BOS Professor Government Arts College, Dr. Ambedkar Veedhi, Bengaluru 560 001. Members 1. Vasudha A R 4. Shirisha Kumari Balagam Assistant Professor and HOD Assistant Professor St.Anne’s Degree College St.Anne’s Degree College for Women, Halasuru, for Women, Halasuru, Bengaluru 560 008. Bengaluru 560 008. 2. Naureen Aziz 5. Anuragh Gowtham K Reader Assistant Professor Jyoti Nivas College, Vijaya College, Jayanagar , Autonomous, Koramangala, Bengaluru 560 011. Bengaluru 560 095. 6. Prakruthi Badrinath 3. Dr. Nazia Obed Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Nobel School of Business, Government Arts College, J P Nagar, Dr. Ambedkar Veedhi, Bengaluru 560 078. Bengaluru 560 001. 6 Introduction And Note to the Facilitator Word and Image 1 is a book prescribed for the students of Communicative English, of the newly formed Bengaluru Central University. Communicative English is a subject in which students are trained in the fundamentals of communication with an emphasis towards writing for the media. The course aims to develop the student’s proficiency in English and develop their communication skills. This book has been designed to hone students’ grammar and pronunciation. The book is divided into two sections, each focusing on the two papers prescribed by Bengaluru Central University. The first semester has two papers: Paper 1: Introduction to Basics of Grammar and Paper 2: Phonetics and Spoken English. The first part of the book attempts to develop the students’ communication skills by enhancing their grammatical competence. The second part aims to help students develop effective spoken and listening skills. Objectives of Paper 1- Introduction to Basics of Grammar To develop Communicative English competence in under graduate students. To identify and avoid common errors in using the Parts of Speech. To frame appropriate sentences. To comprehend written/spoken communication. To speak and write effectively. To identify errors in the use of tenses. Create an awareness of errors in subject-verb agreement. To enhance competence in the contextual use of English. To hone language skills. To enrich the student’s vocabulary. 7 Word and Image I Learning Outcomes Identify and understand the different parts of speech in English. Identify and use different prepositions correctly in speech or writing. Talk about the past, present and future using suitable expressions and structures. Communicate effectively in different social situations. Use appropriate reporting verbs. Convert dialogue to narrative and vice versa. Identify and use homonyms, homophones, idioms, phrases. Objectives of Paper 2 - Phonetics and Spoken English To develop proper pronunciation. To understand the relation between sounds and symbols in English. To enable students to be fluent in their speech. To focus on Received Pronunciation. To understand the process and structure of pronunciation. To learn basic transcription. To minimize pronunciation errors. To improve listening skills. To boost students’ confidence. Learning Outcomes Hone pronunciation and appropriate use of English. Enhance spoken skills in social interaction. Differentiate between consonants and vowels. Use accurate/ standard pronunciation. Speak with confidence. Speak fluently. Speak with the right intonation and stress. Avoid mother tongue influence. Differentiate between Indian English and RP. 8 Teaching and learning will be fruitful only when the practical sessions are conducted in an effective manner. Teachers should use audio CDs/ clips to make learning interesting and effective. Teachers are to use audio CDs with RP pronunciation. Use role play activities for Functional English. The material in this book has been drawn from various sources. We acknowledge the inputs given by the Board of Studies. We thank Prof. M Shiva Prasad, Vivekananda Degree College, Bengaluru for entrusting us with designing the syllabus and contents. We are grateful to Prof. Rekha Rai, MES College, Bengaluru , Dr Sheela, MES College, Bengaluru and Dr Kavita Shastri, Vijaya College, Jayanagar, Bengaluru for reviewing the contents of the handbook. Text Book Committee 9 Word and Image I Contents Module 1 Parts of Speech 12 Module 2 Concord 52 Module 3 Tenses 58 Module 4 Prepositions 85 Module 5 Common Errors by Non- Native Speakers 91 Module 6 Active and Passive Voice 96 Module 7 Dialogue to Narrative 101 Module 8 Communicative Functions 110 Communication Types of Communication Barriers of Communication Greeting and Introduction Seeking/Granting/Refusing Permission Asking and Giving Directions Accepting and Declining Invitations 10 Making/Responding to Complaints Congratulating Sympathising Module 9 Vocabulary 133 Phrasal Verbs and Idioms One Word Substitution Synonyms and Antonyms Homonyms and Homophones Question Paper Format 154 Model Question Paper 159 11 Word and Image I Module 1 “Grammar, which knows how to control even kings.” Molière Parts Of Speech Words in the English language are grouped under different classes called Parts of Speech. The parts of speech are considered the building blocks of the language. They are classified according to their function. There are Eight Parts of Speech in English. NOUN: Names a person (girl, Ms. Amrita), place (Imphal, city), animal (cow, tiger), thing (pen, box) or idea (love, hate). PRONOUN: Is used in place of a noun (he, she them, him, someone, anything). VERB: The verb is the action word in the sentence. It defines the action (stand, went, seen). ADJECTIVE: Modifies a noun or a pronoun (yellow, cute, hard, the exam, a vacation). ADVERB: Modifies a verb (walk quietly), adjective (quite tall), or another adverb (walk very quietly). CONJUNCTION: Joins together two or more words, phrases, or clauses (and, but, or, because, since). PREPOSITION: Word relating a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence (man on the roof). 12 INTERJECTION: Brief and abrupt pauses in speech, word/words used for expressing emotions. An exclamatory mark is used after the expression (No! Ouch!). Exercise 1 Name the Parts of Speech of the underlined words: 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. He was a brave man. 3. The boys jumped happily in the snow. 4. The swift river flowed calmly. 5. The Royal Challengers are always an exciting group of players. 6. Someone brought delicious apples and pears for the dessert. 7. During the storm the other day, several windows cracked. 8. On my desk was a long yellow pencil. 9. Close the door very quietly. 10. You can never succeed by crooked methods. 11. The crowd shouted its approval of his speech. 12. “Hurrah!” shouted the boys. “We won!” 13. The hammer and saw belonged to the carpenter. 14. Nonsense! It is not impossible to do that. 15. Henry and his brother won the contest. 13 Word and Image I Noun A noun is a name of a person, place, animal, thing, feeling or idea. Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object or an indirect object of a verb; as an object of a preposition; and as an adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show possession. Nouns can be: Subject: The company was established in the year 2000. Direct Object: I found my book. Indirect Object: Amita gave Sunil a chocolate. Object of Preposition: She hid under the bed. Used as an Adjective: Children love cheese burgers. Possession: Nouns can also indicate ownership and these nouns are called possessive nouns and is indicated by an apostrophe and the letter –s. Her brother’s dog is very ferocious. Kinds of Nouns Proper Noun Proper nouns are nouns that refer to a specific person, place, object or period of time. Proper nouns begin with capital letters. Examples: Mr.Rai, Bangladesh, Dharwad, Mauryan Empire, Taj Mahal etc. Common Noun Common nouns are nouns that refer to people or things in general. A common noun does not begin with a capital letter unless it appears at the start of a sentence. Examples: dog, doctor, institution, tiger, woman, lamp etc. Collective Noun Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group or collection of similar people, animals or things. Collective nouns are used when you want to refer to a whole group of people or objects. Examples: Army, jury, team, choir, etc. 14 Abstract Noun Abstract nouns are nouns which exist only in our mind. These nouns cannot be seen or touched and things which have no physical reality. It includes qualities, relationships, conditions, ideas and states of being. Examples: Happiness, strength, sorrow, beauty, hatred etc. Material Noun Material nouns are nouns that name materials. They do not have plural forms. Examples: gold, wood, steel, copper etc. Nouns are further classified into two types depending on whether they can be counted or not. Countable Nouns Countable nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. Countable nouns are those that refer to something that can be counted. They have both singular and plural forms (e.g. dog/dogs; man/men; country/ countries). In the singular form, they can be preceded by a or an. Examples: table, finger, girl, candidate etc. Non-countable Nouns/ Mass Nouns Non-countable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted because they are thought of as wholes that cannot be cut into parts. They do not have a plu- ral form. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture). Examples: milk, flour, coffee, sand etc. Using Articles with Countable and Non-countable Nouns A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and does not take an article if it is used in a general sense. 15 Word and Image I The guest of honour arrived late. You are welcome as a guest in our home. The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise. Guests are welcome here anytime. Non-countable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way as it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea. Examples: Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world. The information in your files is correct. Sugar has become expensive. Please pass me the sugar. Exercises I Tick the boxes that contain nouns: Pencil Wipro Slow Hard Paper write Elephant Different Doctor Beautiful Raymond Armenia sorrow Team Football Play Butter graceful Happy happiness Excellent II Fill in the blanks using the correct form of the nouns given in brackets: 1. I had a very happy ______ (child). 2. I forgot to renew my _____ (member) in the sailing club. 3. We formed a deep and lasting _____ (friend). 4. He hopes to take over the _____ (leader) of the party. 5. There are lots of nice people in the _____ (neighbor). 16 III Fill in the blanks with the right word. litter, gang, colony, choir, army, fleet, bouquet, pride, cluster 1. an ___________of soldiers 2. a ___________of ants 3. a ___________ of flowers 4. a ____________of thieves 5. a ___________ of lions IV Fill in the blanks with suitable collective nouns. 1. A _____ of birds flew high in the sky. 2. They saw a _____ of lions at the zoo. 3. The farmer has a _____ of cattle on his farm. 4. He ate a _____ of grapes today. 5. Our friend showed us his _____ of cars. V Use the correct noun forms of the underlined words. 1. I admire so many things about her; her generousness, intelligentness, and above all her humbleness. 2. Weightlifting not only increases your strongness but also improves your general fitfulness. 3. I don’t think you have understood the complexness of the problem. 4. The humidness in the air is making us sweat. 5. Swiss trains are well known for their punctualness. VI Correct the sentences where necessary. 1. The company bought new machineries. 2. The car’s window is broken. 3. My aunt gave me many advices. 4. I have five sister-in-laws. 5. Anil studied in a boy’s college. 17 Word and Image I Pronoun A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: I,she, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn’t have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like: Do you like the actor? I don’t like the actor. The actor is very pompous. With pronouns, we can say: Do you like the actor? I don’t like him. He is very pompous. Pronouns are divided into the following categories: Personal Pronouns I, we, you, he, she, it, they, me, us, you, him, her, and them. Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, those Possessive Pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs Interrogative Pronouns what, which, who, whom, and whose. Reflexive Pronouns myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself and themselves Reciprocal Pronouns each other, one another Empathetic Pronouns myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself and themselves Indefinite Pronouns someone, somebody, anyone, anybody Distributive Pronouns Everyone, everybody, each, either, neither, one, none Relative Pronouns who, that, what, which, those 18 Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on: number: singular ( I) or plural (we) person: 1st person ( I), 2nd person (you) or 3rd person (he) gender: male (he), female (she) or neuter ( it) case: subject (we) or object (us) Number Person Gender Personal Pronouns Subject Object Singular 1st male/female I Me 2nd male/female You You 3rd male He Him female She Her neuter It It Plural 1st male/female We Us 2nd male/female You You 3rd male/female/neuter They Them Demonstrative Pronouns A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those) Near Far Singular This That Plural These Those Examples: 1. This tastes good. 2. Have you seen this? 3. These are bad times. 4. Do you like these? 5. That is beautiful. 19 Word and Image I Possessive Pronouns We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the “antecedent”) belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things). We use possessive pronouns depending on: number: singular (mine) or plural (ours) person: 1st person ( mine), 2nd person (yours) or 3rd person (his) gender: male (his), female (hers) Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some examples. Notice that each possessive pronoun can: be subject or object refer to a singular or plural antecedent Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs Examples: 1. Look at these paintings. Mine is the big one. (subject = My painting) 2. I like your bag. Do you like mine? (object = my bag) 3. I looked everywhere for your key. I found John’s key but I couldn’t find yours. (object = your key) 4. My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers) 5. All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay) Reflexive Pronouns We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural). There are eight reflexive pronouns: 20 Reflexive Pronoun Singular myself yourself himself, herself, itself Plural ourselves yourselves themselves The underlined words do not refer to the The underlined words refer to the same object same person/thing John saw me. I saw myself in the mirror. Why does he blame you? Why do you blame yourself? David sent him a copy. John sent himself a copy. My dog hurt the cat. My dog hurt itself. We blame you. We blame ourselves. Can you help my children? Can you help yourselves? They cannot look after the babies. They cannot look after themselves. Emphatic Pronouns Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as emphatic pronouns, but the functions and usages are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Examples: 1. I made it myself. OR I myself made it. 2. Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself? 3. The President himself promised to stop the war. 4. She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me. 5. The exam itself wasn’t difficult, but exam room was horrible. 6. Never mind. We’ll do it ourselves. 7. You yourselves asked us to do it. 8. They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never read it themselves. 21 Word and Image I Indefinite Pronouns An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and “not definite”. Some typical indefinite pronouns are: all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/ someone. Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural. Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb and that any personal pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples: 1. Each of the players has a doctor. 2. I met two girls. One has given me her phone number. Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement: Many have expressed their views. Reciprocal Pronouns Reciprocal pronouns are used when two or more subjects act in the same way towards the other. For example, Aarav is talking to Sanjana, and Sanjana is talking to Aarav. So we say: Aarav and Sanjana are talking to each other. The action is “reciprocated”. There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words: each other ( usually used to refer to two persons or things) one another (usually used to refer to more than two persons or things) These reciprocal pronouns are used in the following contexts: there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and they must be doing the same thing. 22 Examples: 1. The ten prisoners were all blaming one another. 2. Both teams played hard against each other. 3. We gave each other gifts. 4. Why don’t you believe each other? 5. The gangsters were fighting one another. Relative Pronouns A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a “relative” pronoun because it “relates” to the word that it modifies. Here is an example: The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. In the above example, “who”: relates to “person”, which it modifies. introduces the relative clause “who phoned me last night”. There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that Who (subject) and whom (object) are used for people, Whose is for possession, Which is for things, That can be used for people and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information). Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don’t know (what we are asking the question about). There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which Look at these example questions. In the answers, the noun that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold. Question Answer Who told you? Sunayna told me. Subject Whom did you I told Sunayna. Object tell? What’s happened? An accident’s Subject happened. What do you want? I want coffee. Object 23 Word and Image I Exercises I Fill in the blanks with suitable pronouns: 1. Does _____ know that _____ was absent? 2. Tell _____ (he, him) _____ (I, me) have obtained a degree in Chemistry. 3. I remember that _____ bought the fruits from _____. 4. Please don’t tell ______ about _____. 5. _____ can swim because _____ has webbed feet. 6. I met Alice yesterday. _____ invited _____ to her house. 7. Jane has a cat; _____ likes to play with _____. 8. When the dog chased John, _____ ran as fast as _____ could. 9. My uncle works in a factory. _____ says _____ is a noisy place. 10. The teacher said to the class, “When _____ finished your work, please pass _____ up to me.” II Complete the following with suitable possessive or personal pronouns: 1. Mary has __________ exams next week; so _________ is working hard for _______. 2. Jim went out to get _________ car from the garage; however, ______ came home disappointed, as _________ was not yet ready. 3. The students had to complete ___________projects by Monday. 4. His house is bigger than _____________. 5. Here, let me carry __________ bag; _________ looks heavy. 6. Tom painted ________ house white; but the Jones decided to paint _______ cream! III Correct the errors in the following: 1. Myself Richard. 2. Her hair is longer than me. 3. This book is mines. 4. The dog wagged it’s tail. 5. This book is your’s. 24 IV Fill in the blanks with ‘which, ‘who’, ‘whom’ or‘whose’. 1. The boy, _____ father is a doctor, is my best friend. 2. This is not something _____ we like to do. 3. That man, _____ left leg was amputated, suffers from diabetes. 4. The thief, _____ they caught, was sent to the prison. 5. Our friends, _____ we invited to the party, arrived rather early. 25 Word and Image I Verb The verb is king in English. A sentence cannot be constructed without a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: “Stop!” You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other part of speech. Verbs are sometimes described as “action words”. Many verbs give the idea of action, of “doing” something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work convey action. But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of “being”. For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong convey state. A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence “John speaks English”, John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe: action (Ram plays football.) state (Anthony seems kind.) Kinds of Verbs Transitive verbs Some verbs do not convey complete meaning by themselves; they require nouns or pronouns to complete their meaning. The verb denotes an action which passes over from the doer or subject to an object. 1. My mother loves chocolates. 2. We heard a loud noise. 3. The girl kicked the football. 4. Shankar plays the guitar. 5. Joe drank a cup of coffee. Intransitive verbs Some verbs do not require an object to make sense but make good sense by themselves. The verb denotes an action which does not pass over to an object. 1. The train was late. 2. The birds flew away. 3. The babies are sleeping. 4. She smiled. 5. Her grandfather sneezed loudly. 26 Finite verbs These verbs change their forms when there is a change in the number or person of the subject. These are the actual verbs in a sentence. Non-finite verbs These verbs do not change according to the number/person of the subject. These are called verbals. They work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs. There are mainly three types of non-finite verbs: infinitives, gerunds and participles. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word ‘to’ plus a verb and functions as a noun, adjective or adverb. 1. To err is human. 2. She wants to meet me. 3. I want to sit on the chair. A gerund is a verbal that ends in ‘-ing’ and functions as a noun. It is also called a verbal noun. 1. Jogging is good for health. 2. Hari quit smoking a year ago. 3. Her son hates swimming. A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. It is called a verbal adjective. 1. I touched a burning burner. 2. He likes fried potatoes. 3. A broken pot is lying on the floor. Main verbs Sometimes there is more than one kind of verb in a sentence. These are auxiliary verbs , modal verbs, and main verbs (sometimes called full or non-auxiliary verbs). The main verb expresses the main action or state of being of the subject in the sentence and changes form according to the subject (singular, plural, 1st person, 2nd person, 3rd person). Most statements in speech and writing have a main verb. 27 Word and Image I The main verb changes its form according to the noun number and tense form. Examples: 1. Dogs usually chase cats. 2. But my cat chases my dog. 3. My cat is chasing my dog. 4. My dog has sometimes chased my cat. 5. But, only because my cat ate my dog’s dinner. 6. My cat has been eating my dog’s dinner. Auxiliary verbs are used together with a main verb to give grammatical information and therefore add extra meaning to a sentence, which is not given by the main verb. Auxiliary Verbs or Helping Verbs Auxiliary verbs (sometimes known as helping verbs) are verbs that are used to assist the verb. Auxiliary verbs cannot be used with modal verbs. Auxiliary verbs are used to make sentences negative. Auxiliary verbs are used to ask questions. Auxiliary verbs are used in the sentence structure of the verb sentence. Be forms Am Is Are Was Were Been being Have Has Have Had Having forms Do Do Does Did Done Doing forms Modals: A modal is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to express: ability, possibility, permission, advice, prohibition or obligation. Modal verbs do not change their form. The main verb is always in its base form when used with a verb. The following modal verbs are used to with the present/future verb tense: can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may 28 The following modal verbs are used in the past tense: would, should, could, might Modal verbs are used to answer questions in the short form  Yes, I can. Exercises I Fill in the blanks with ‘is’ or ‘are’. 1. The rose _____ a beautiful flower. 2. His two sons _____ still small. 3. My brother _____ doing his degree at that university. 4. Dogs _____ the most faithful animals. 5. There _____ a lot of ants on the tree. II Fill in the blanks with ‘do’ or ‘does’ 1. He ________ his work promptly. 2. They _______ everything possible to help others. 3. Richard and Harry _______ not want an extension. 4. The client _________ his best to please his vendors. 5. The company _______ not insist on regular timings. III Fill in the blanks with ‘has’ or ‘have’ 1. They _______ a busy schedule. 2. He ______ completed his work on time. 3. Gabrielle and Freddy _________ a lovely home. 4. Julia Roberts ________ a wonderful smile. 5. The company ________ its own policies. 29 Word and Image I IV. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate modal verb from those again. 1. The latest government crisis ___________ affect the outcome of talks today which British dairy farmers are hoping ________ determine that Britain _____________ not be required to accept further reductions in dairy exports to the EEC. (dare, will, could, should, must) 2. If the war continues, do we have a referendum to decide if people ___________ accept the conscription of 18 year olds? (will, must, dare, should) 3. We __________ have to wait and see if the election _________ change the way people feel, but we _________ not expect too much too soon. (will, shall, should, would, ought to) 4. There ___________ be no doubt that Europeans _____________ soon be enjoying the best economical climate for years. ( might, can, will, shall) 5. The minister ____________ have realized the policy was unlikely to succeed, and done something to rectify the situation before it ___________ get any worse. (oughtn’t to, could, should, won’t) 30 Adjective An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun/pronoun/noun phrases. An adjective “qualifies” or “modifies” a noun (a big dog). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). Adjectives tell the reader how much—or how many—of something you’re talking about, which thing you want passed to you, or which kind of something you want. Kinds of Adjectives Determiners the, a/an, this, some, any Demonstrative Adjectives are used to indicate or demonstrate specific people, animals, or things. These, those, this and that are demonstrative adjectives. 1. These books belong to her. 2. This movie is my favorite. 3. Please put those cookies on the blue plate. Descriptive adjectives are words which describe nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong to this type. These adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also called qualitative adjectives. 1. Julia Roberts has beautiful eyes. 2. Rapunzel had long hair. 3. She drives a fast car. Quantitative Adjectives: These adjectives provide information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the question category of ‘how much’ and ‘how many’. 1. The cap seller sold twenty caps. 2. There was a little water in the bottle. 3. A few people are waiting to meet the cricketer. 31 Word and Image I Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives indicate possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of something to someone/something. 1. Raunak has borrowed my book. 2. Sudhakar has given his car to his brother. 3. Ashwini has sold her car. Interrogative Adjectives: These adjectives ask a question. An interrogative adjective must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. These words will not be considered as adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them. 1. Whose book do you want? 2. What product did you order from Amazon? 3. Which song is Brian listening to? Degrees of Comparison There are three degrees of adjectives: Positive, comparative, superlative. These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives. Positive degree Positive degree is used when we speak about only one person or thing. 1. Ramita is a good girl. 2. Bangalore is a big city. 3. This article has important information. Comparative degree Comparative degree is used when two persons or two things are compared with each other. 1. Prema’s house is bigger than Sheela’s house. 2. Hari is the taller of the two boys. 3. This book has more information than that book. Superlative degree Superlative degree is used when we compare more than two persons or things with one another. 1. Yesterday’s match was the most interesting match. 2. Harish is the tallest boy in the class. 3. The cheetah is the fastest animal. 32 Positive form Comparative form Superlative form Clean Cleaner (the) cleanest Quantifiers Some/Any: Both “some” and “any” can modify countable and uncountable nouns. 1. “There is some water on the floor.” 2. “There are some Mexicans here.” 3. “Do you have any food?” 4. “Do you have any apples?” Much/Many: “Much” modifies only uncountable nouns. 1. “There isn’t much water in the well.” 2. “How much money do you have in your wallet?” “Many” modifies only countable nouns. 1. “Many Americans travel to Europe.” 2. “I collected many sources for my paper.” Little/Few: “Little” modifies only uncountable nouns. 1. “He had little food in the house.” 2. “When I was in college, there was little money to spare.” “Few” modifies only countable nouns. 1. “There are a few doctors in town.” 2. “He had few reasons for his opinion. 33 Word and Image I Exercises I Write the Adjective forms of the following Nouns/Verbs: Noun Strength Power Beauty Happiness satisfaction Adjective II Supply 3 suitable Adjectives to add more meaning to the Nouns: Nouns Girl Movie Book River Mountain Job Adjective III Write about your most memorable holiday/vacation. (Use relevant adjectives) IV Who is your role model? List at least 5 qualities you admire in that person. V Read the following sentences and choose the adjective from the list that conveys the opposite meaning. Quiet slow generous energetic pretty brave rich weak 1. Leo is such a cowardly dog. He’s scared of everything! 2. This is a very fast car. It goes nearly 200mph. 3. Susan is a mean girl. She never gives me anything. 4. In the morning, I’m so lazy. I just want to sleep. 5. That building is so ugly. Gray and ugly! 6. The party is too noisy. The police are coming! 7. My country is very poor. It doesn’t have a lot of money. 8. That bull is very strong. Look at his muscles. VI Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word. 1. There is so (many, much) smoke coming out of the chimney. 2. There are (plenty of, a large amount of) fish in the pond. 3. (A little, A few) minutes is all it takes for him to shave. 4. The postman put (a great deal of, a lot of) letters into the bag. 5. He threw (a little, some) nuts to the monkeys. 34 Adverb The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the word that it modifies is in italics. Modifies a verb: John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?) Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?) She never smokes. (When does she smoke?) Modifies an adjective: He is really handsome. Modifies another adverb: - She drives incredibly slowly. But adverbs have other functions, too. They can: Modify a whole sentence: - Obviously, I can’t know everything. Modify a prepositional phrase: - It’s immediately inside the door. Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective. Here are some examples: quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. “Friendly”, for example, is an adjective. Some adverbs have no particular form, for example: well, fast, very, never, always, often, still Kinds of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner 1. She moved slowly and spoke quietly. 2. They lived happily. 3. Malini ate the piece of cake greedily. 35 Word and Image I Adverbs of Place 1. She has lived on the island all her life. 2. She still lives there now. 3. Why don’t you run backwards. Adverbs of Frequency 1. She takes the boat to the mainland every day. 2. She often goes by herself. 3. They never go to films. Adverbs of Time 1. She tries to get back before dark. 2. It’s starting to get dark now. 3. She finished her tea at 5 o’clock. Adverbs of Degree 1. We have eaten enough. 2. I am feeling much better. 3. He is a very good singer. Positions of Adverbs Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that “the students showed a really wonderful attitude” and that “the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude” and that “my professor is really tall, but not “He ran real fast.” Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree. Walk faster if you want to keep up with me. The student who reads fastest will finish first. We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs: With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients. The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I’ve ever seen. 36 Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or down tone. Here are some examples: Emphasizers: 1. I really don’t believe him. 2. He literally wrecked his mother’s car. 3. She simply ignored me. Amplifiers: 1. The teacher completely rejected her proposal. 2. I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings. 3. They heartily endorsed the new restaurant. Downtoners: 1. I kind of like this college. 2. Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister. 3. His mother mildly disapproved his actions. Exercises I Choose the most suitable adverb to fill each blank: angrily, enough, never, outside, yesterday, down, last week, often, quickly, rarely 1. She left _____ for the university where she is doing a degree course. 2. We are standing _____ his house waiting for him. 3. He told us _____ not to walk on the grass. He told us angrily not to walk on the grass. 4. I am not strong _____ to help him carry that box. I am not strong enough to help him carry that box. 5. She will _____ be happy in that job. 37 Word and Image I II Place the given adverbs or adverb phrases appropriately in the following sentences: 1. There was a huge crowd, which waited for tickets (yesterday, in front of the new cinema, patiently). ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 2. The crowd began to get restless and threw stones (at the windows, after half an hour, as fast as they could). ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 3. The owner of the cinema ‘phoned the Collector, and he asked the Superintendent of Police to disperse the crowd (at once, firmly, but not roughly). ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 4. The rescue operation, the Superintendent got together about forty policemen (Very quickly, at his office). ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 5. When the policemen arrived on the scene, the crowd was ordered to disperse (at once, peacefully). ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 38 III Choose the correct form from each pair of words. Dear Natasha, Well, here I am in England. Thank you for your _____ (kind/kindly) letter. You asked me what it’s like here. I must say, it’s pretty _____ (good/well)! The language school is very _____ (efficient/efficiently) organized. On the first morning we had to do a test, which I found rather _____ (hard/hardly.) However I got a _____ (surprising/surprisingly) good mark, so I’m in the second class. I didn’t talk much at first, because I couldn’t think of the words _____ (quick/ quickly) enough, but _____ (late/lately) I’ve become much more _____ (fluent/ fluently). I’m staying with a family who live ______ (near/nearly) the school. They are quite _____ (pleasant/pleasantly), although I don’t see much of them because I’m always so _____ (busy/busily) with my friends from school. I was surprised how _____ (easy/easily) I made new friends here. They come from _____ (different/differently) parts of the world and we have some ______ (absolute/absolutely) fascinating discussions. I do hope you will be able to join me here next term. I’m sure we’d have _____ (good/well) fun together. All the best Misha 39 Word and Image I Preposition Preposition is a word used to show the relation between a noun or a pronoun and the remaining words in a sentence. The prepositions OFF, TO, and IN are among the ten most frequently used words in the English language. The most frequently used prepositions are: about above across after against along behind below beneath beside besides between down during except for from in off on onto opposite out outside till to toward under underneath Until Exercises I Complete the following using Prepositions 1. John made some mistakes ___ work and he got arrested _____ stealing. 2. My brother is _____ prison. 3. I think I will stay _____ bed all day. 4. I saw him getting ____ a taxi. 5. I have lived in Bangalore _____ 25 years. 6. John made some mistakes ___ work and he got arrested _____ stealing. 7. My brother is _____ prison. 8. I think I will stay _____ bed all day. 9. I saw him getting ____ a taxi. 10. I have lived in Bangalore _____ 25 years. 40 Conjunction Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases and words together to con- struct sentences. Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless We can consider conjunctions from three aspects. Conjunctions have three basic forms: Single Word for example: and, but, because, although Compound (often ending with as or that) for example: provided that, as long as, in order that Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective) for example: so...that Functions Conjunctions have two basic functions or “jobs”: Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example: - Jack and Jill went up the hill. - The water was warm, but I didn’t go swimming. Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example: - I went swimming although it was cold. 41 Word and Image I Position Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause. Coordinating Conjunctions The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There’s an easy way to remember them - their initials spell: F A N B O Y S For And Nor But OR Yet So A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure: Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]: I like [tea] and [coffee]. [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee]. Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction: 42 I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at the university. She is kind so she helps people. When “and” is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional: He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum. He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum. Correlative Conjunctions They are paired conjunctions that are generally used together. These are used to link words, clauses or phrases into a complex sentence. both...and either...or neither...nor whether...or not only...but also Exercises I Complete the following using Conjunctions. 1. The sessions are between 10 a.m ______ 6 p.m. 2. I can do it _____you’ll help me. 3. You can have a Pizza _____ a burger. 4. ______ I tried my best, I lost the prize. 5. They were tired; ______ they rested a while. 6. Could you keep an eye on her _____ I get back please. 7. I hope she gets here ______ the train leaves. 8. I came ______ I was unwilling. 9. The shirt fitted Harry well, _____ the trousers had to be shortened. 10. He likes tea _____ coffee. 43 Word and Image I II Join the following sentences to make one complete sentence without using and, but or so. 1. The suspect may hide anywhere. The police will find him. 2. We went to the market. We bought some sweets. 3. I have completed my studies. I am looking for a job. 4. What happened at the match? Nobody has an idea. 5. She forgot her car keys. That was carless of her. 44 Interjection An interjection is a word used to express strong, sudden feelings. Emotions such as fear, surprise, anger, love, and joy can all be expressed with an interjection. Interjections usually have an exclamation point (!) after it. Examples: “Ah! there he comes” and “Alas! what shall I do?” The word ‘ah’ expresses surprise, and the word ‘alas’ expresses distress. They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are uttered as exclamations. Examples of interjections: nonsense! strange! hail! away! Exercises I Begin the following sentences with suitable Interjections: 1. We won the match. 2. It hurts. 3. She’s stunningly beautiful. 4. I missed the train. 5. I lost my uncle in an accident. II Choose the correct reply to the following: 1. Do you mind holding this for a while? Not at all Indeed yes Oh no! 2. Did you have a good flight? Terrible Not at all Of course not 45 Word and Image I 3. Would you be interested in this proposal? Seems interesting Terrible My pleasure 4. Did you remember to lock the door? Darn! I forgot. Of course not My pleasure 5. I think I shall visit you this summer. Splendid! Terrible Of course not 46 Articles An article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. The articles in English are: a, an and the. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. the = definite article a and an = indefinite articles For example, “Let’s read the book,” means a specific book. “Let’s read a book,” means any book rather than a specific book. Here’s another way to explain it: ‘The’ is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, “I just saw the most popular movie of the year.” There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. ‘A/an’ is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. Example, “I would like to go see a movie.” We’re not talking about a specific movie. We’re talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don’t have a specific one in mind. Indefinite Articles: a and an ‘A’ and ‘an’ signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example: “My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas.” This refers to any dog. We don’t know which dog because we haven’t found the dog yet. “Somebody call a policeman!” This refers to any policeman. We don’t need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available. “When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!” Here, we’re talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there’s only one we’re talking about here. 47 Word and Image I Remember, using a or an, depends on the sound that begins the next word. a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy, a car, a bike, a zoo, a dog. an + singular noun beginning with a vowel sounding word: an elephant, an egg, an apple, an idiot, an orphan, an hour, an RJ, an MP, an honest person. a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like ‘yoo-zer,’ i.e. begins with a consonant ‘y’ sound, so ‘a’ is used) a university, a unicycle. If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article: a broken egg an unusual problem a European country (sounds like ‘yer-o-pi-an,’ i.e. begins with consonant ‘y’ sound) Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group: I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists) Definite Article: the The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: “The dog that bit me ran away.” Here, we’re talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. “I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!” Here, we’re talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don’t know the policeman’s name, it’s still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat. “I saw the elephant at the zoo.” Here, we’re talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. 48 The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely. “I love to sail over the water” (some specific body of water) or “I love to sail over water” (any water). “He spilled the milk all over the floor” (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or “He spilled milk all over the floor” (any milk). “A/an” can be used only with count nouns. “I need a bottle of water.” “I need a new glass of milk.” Most of the time, you can’t say, “She wants a water,” unless you’re implying, say, a bottle of water. There are some specific rules for using ‘the’ with geographical nouns. Do not use ‘the’ before: names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States. names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami. names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with mountain ranges like the Andes or the Rockies or the Nilgiris. names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands. Use ‘the’ before: names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole geographical areas: the Middle East, the West deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula musical instruments: the guitar, the flute 49 Word and Image I Omission of Articles Some common types of nouns that don’t take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science Exercises I Complete the following using a, an, the 1. There were many dogs in the park. One dog was ___ Dalmatian 2. Pandas and ___ tigers are both endangered animals. 3. She is wearing ___ blue dress with red earrings. 4. Hawaii is ___ island in the Pacific Ocean. 5. Christmas comes once ___ year. 6. ___ ant is __ insect. 7. The Nile is ___ river. 8. I went to the shop to get ___ bread. 9. He broke ___ glass when he was washing dishes. 10. You should take ___ umbrella. II Use a/an/ the, where necessary: 1. My brother is ______ artist. 2. I’m staying with ______ friends. 3. She’s a writer. She writes ______ books 4. I need to buy ______ new trousers. I’m getting fat! 5. Sue and Vaughan are ______ good writers. 6. I like all animals but ______ cats are my favourites. 7. I’ve seen ______ good films recently. “The Insider” was great 8. ______ people would like to talk to you, if you have the time. 9. I’ve got ______ idea. 10. It’s the last question. What _____ relief! 50 III Insert a/an/the wherever required. Wallet, or purse for some, is precious item in which most people carry things more essential than money towards everyday life. If some people were to lose that portable safe, they may be upset for rest of that day. The person without that wallet could be cranky or depressed for while. Maybe something of great sentimental value was in that wallet. This person could stay hold these feelings for long time, until they find their belongings by which case they are filled with joy. I, personally, keep anything I may have interest in knowing where it is, in my wallet. I am very good about always having my wallet and never losing it... until recently. 51 Word and Image I Module 2 CONCORD A verb must agree with its subject: In number In person SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB Is/am/are/was/has Are/were/have Takes ‘s’ form: Takes root form: Ex: She waits/writes Ex: They wait/write (Singular subject agrees with singular verb & plural subject agrees with plural verb) Rule 1: A plural verb is used when two or more subjects are combined by ‘and’. 1. She and her sister are identical. 2. Govind and Arun were friends. 3. Radha and Ramani have secured the same rank. There are two exceptions in using and When two singular subjects refer to the same person or thing a singular verb should be used. 1. A good Statesman and Scientist was Abdul Kalam. (Referring to one Person) 2. My mother and guide has helped me. (Here mother is also the guide referring to one person) NOTE: In the first sentence article ‘A’ is used only once denoting it as the same person, if the article is used behind each subject like: A good Statesman and a good Scientist – this refers to two different people hence a plural verb will be used. When two subjects represent one idea or concept a singular verb should be used. 1. Idli and Chutney is a nutritious breakfast. 2. Time and tide waits for none. 52 Rule 2: Words such as ‘each’ or ‘every’ is used before two singular subjects – singular verb should be used: When two or more singular subjects are combined with or, nor, but, none, neither nor, either, or a singular verb is used. 1. Every man and woman works hard to feed the family. Each bird and beast tries to protect its young ones. 2. John or Abraham has to compromise. 3. Not only his friend but even his brother finds him selfish. Neither Suresh nor Mahesh is at fault. 4. Either Malini or Sohan has the property in their names. Rule 3: A singular collective noun ( a crowd, a gang, a team, jury) takes a singular verb. Class names or classified categories (Footwear, Crockery, Stationery) take singular verb. Names of branches of Science or diseases (Mathematics, Physics, Ethics) take singular verb. There are two exceptions A dozen takes a plural verb since it denotes a plural number. There are a dozen cups in the tray. A dozen bananas are cheaper compared to one apple. A pair of when applied to things (such as: Scissors, Shoes, Trousers) which are two components always together, takes a singular verb. However if we omit a pair of and use the plural words then it must agree with the plural verb. 1. There is a pair of trousers in the cupboard. 2. There is new pair of shoes in the box. 3. There are scissors in the drawer. 4. His socks were torn nd worn out. 53 Word and Image I In short they take: SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB Much (quantity) Many (number) Collective Noun A number of, several Class names/ title of the book A dozen One of / none/neither/ either Some of(number)/ half of Each/ every/ anybody People/ cattle Rule 4 Words like with, together with, along with, besides, as well as, including, in addition to, etc. do not affect the number of the verb. If the subject is singular, a singular verb is required; if plural, a plural verb. 1. The television, along with the cabinet, is to be sold. 2. Mrs Paul, with her son and daughter, is going to the theatre this evening. 3. Our chief competitor, as well as ourselves, is obliged to increase prices. 4. The decoration of the rooms, including the carpets and furniture, is most pleasing. Rule 5 If the subject is made up of both singular and plural words connected by or, nor, either... or; neither... nor, not only... but also, the verb agrees with the nearer part of the subject. 1. Neither the quality nor the prices have changed. 2. Neither the prices nor the quality has changed. 3. Not only the headmaster but also the teachers are in favour of the expansion of the school. 4. Not only the teachers but also the headmaster is in favour of the expansion of the school. 5. Neither the salesmen nor the buyer is in favour of the system. 6. Neither the buyer nor the salesmen are in favour of the system. Rule 6 If the subject consists of two singular words connected by or, neither... nor, or either... or, the subject is singular and requires a singular verb. 54 1. Neither our Accounts Department nor our Head Office has a record of the transaction. 2. Sunita or Neetu has the swimming suit. 3. Either October or November is a good vacation month. 4. Neither the radio nor the television was in working order. Rule 7 Plural verbs are required for many nouns that have no singular form, such as proceeds, goods, ashes, remains, credentials, premises, etc. Examples: 1. The proceeds of the magic show are to be given to the fund for soldiers’ welfare. 2. The goods are being dispatched today by goods train. Rule 8 When the group acts as a unit, the verb should be singular. 1. The committee has agreed to submit its report on Friday. 2. The Board of Directors meets once in a month. 3. The firm is one of the most reputed in the country. 4. The majority has made its decision. Rule 9 When the members of the group are thought of as acting separately, the verb should be plural. 1. The team are arguing over who should be the captain, (individual members in the team are arguing) 2. The committee were not in agreement on the action to be taken. The audience were cheering and laughing; even crying. Rule 10 Company names may be either singular or plural, according to their meaning. The plural form emphasizes the individual personnel making up the company. 1. Mudra and Corporation have retained the goodwill of their customers. 2. The Oil Corporation is located at Nariman Point, Mumbai, 55 Word and Image I Exercises I. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. 1. Kamala and Vimala twins. (is/are) 2. John and Mary not come home (has/have) 3. Two and two four (make/makes) 4. Three –fourths of the house _ constructed (was/were) 5. Bread and butter _ a wholesome food (is/are). II. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. 1. Everyone of the group participated in the activity. (has/ have) 2. Each child in the class _ written the composition. (has/have) 3. None but the brave given a medal (is/are) 4. Neither his mother nor his father the game (play/plays) 5. Neither parent _ proud of her achievements. (is/are). III. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. 1. A bouquet of flowers been given to the elderly. (has/have) 2. A mob _ attacked the office. (has/have) 3. A new pair of shoes given to him as a gift. (is/are) 4. The trousers he has worn bought from the famous mall. (is/are) 5. The stationery very old in the office. (is/are). IV. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. 1. Fifty grams of Tea forty rupees. (cost/costs) 2. Ten Thousand Rupees _ a lot of money. (is/are) 3. Thirty years a very long time. (is/are) 4. Ten tons a heavy load. (is/are) 5. Forty hours the regular work per week. (is/are) 56 V. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. 1. There two errors in the sentence. (Was/were) 2. Which of those books yours? (is/ are) 3. Famous writer and music composer Hamsalekha lives in Bangalore. (is/are) 4. The music CDs borrowed from the library on my table. (is/are) 5. The boss, as well as his colleagues gone on a trip. (has/have) VI. Underline the correct verb form in the following sentences: 1. The quality of the shoes is/are not good. 2. Neither of the applicants is/are fully qualified. 3. His knowledge of many languages was/were really remarkable. 4. Few men is/are able to do cooking. 5. Either of these students was/were allowed to write the exam. 6. The ‘Arabian Nights’ is/are still a favourite book among children. 7. People in our village do/does not have electricity. 8. Not only his writing but also his speech was/were confusing. 9. One of the girls in the class own/ owns this book. 10. Many of the flowers has/have no smell. VII. Correct the following sentences: 1. The pen and the paper is on the desk. 2. Every one of the students have practiced very hard. 3. The skills of understanding personal communications is crucial to good business. 4. Not many people know the truth about the lifestyles of the rich and famous. 5. The number of people who are mobile phone owners rise every year. 6. It used to be thought that learning languages waste time. 7. She is taking the test twice because she believe it is best to have a trial run. 8. In the ‘50s, the comedy team of Abbott and Costello were world f amous. 9. Every day there is another driver who lose his driving license due to speed. 10. Neither of the debates were successful. 57 Word and Image I Module 3 TENSES Tenses are modified forms of verbs used to indicate the time and state of an action/event; to specify when an event or action took place, whether it is complete or in continuation. Tenses can be classified into three categories: Present Past Future Each of the types of tenses has four different forms: a) Simple Tense b) Continuous Tense c) Perfect Tense d) Perfect Continuous Tense Present Tense Present tense is used to refer to an action that occurs in the present. A. Present Simple Tense: We use Present Simple Tense to: I. Talk about things in general Examples: 1. She is a teacher. 2. Arun plays tennis. 3. Akshatha speaks three languages. 4. I like chocolates. 5. He knows the cricketer. II. State facts/universal truths Examples: 1. The sun rises in the East. 58 2. Water boils at hundred degree Celsius. 3. The earth revolves around the sun. 4. The moon orbits the earth. 5. Plants give us oxygen. III. Express habitual actions/events (things that happen regularly/ repeatedly) Examples: 1. She goes to school. 2. We drink coffee in the morning. 3. The shop closes at 9 pm. 4. I visit my grandparents every week. 5. The train arrives at 8 am. IV. Express feelings Examples: 1. She loves kids. 2. He hates milk. 3. They enjoy travelling. 4. Amritha dislikes coffee. 5. Surya abhors the way people throw trash on the roads. *Some of the common present time expressions are usually, always, often, sometimes, on Sundays, at weekends, regularly, rarely, every week etc. Structure of Sentence Subject+ Main Verb + Object Note: If the subject is third person singular (he/she/it/singular noun), then “s” or “es” is added to the main verb. Examples: 1. She goes to office every day. 59 Word and Image I 2. He plays cricket every evening. 3. Ramya works in a bank. 4. She goes to the market on Sundays. 5. Amitha watches all the soaps on Netflix. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject+ Auxiliary Verb+ Not+ Verb Negative sentences are constructed by using “do/does/did/are/is etc.” followed by “not”. If the subject is third person singular, “does not” is used; if the subject is plural, “do not” is used. Examples: 1. Children do not like vegetables. 2. He does not drive. 3. They do not have a car. 4. You are not a good singer. 5. Yash is not a good playwright. Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object If the subject is third person singular, the sentence starts with the auxiliary verb “does”. If the subject is plural, the sentence starts with the auxiliary verb “do”. Examples: 1. Do you have a pen? 2. Does he like music? 3. Do they score good marks? 4. Does Teju play the guitar? 5. Do you know to play the piano? 60 B. Present Continuous Tense: It is also called present progressive tense. It is used to describe actions happening in the present; these actions are happening at the time of speaking. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Present Participle (base form of the verb + ing) Examples: 1. I am riding a bicycle. 2. He is having lunch. 3. Keerthi is reading a book. 4. Maya is playing cricket. 5. The baby is crying. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Not + Present Participle (base form of the verb+ ing) Examples: 1. She is not preparing food. 2. Madhu is not participating in the competition. 3. They are not playing today. 4. He is not walking in the park. 5. Roshini is not baking cookies. Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Present Participle (base form of the verb + ing) Or Question Word+ Subject+ Auxiliary Verb+ Present Participle (base form of the verb + ing) 61 Word and Image I Examples: 1. Are you singing at the event? 2. Is she driving the car? 3. Are you listening to me? 4. Is he playing football? 5. Which book are you reading? C. Present Perfect Tense It is used to describe actions that began in the past and continue in the present or have just been completed. (Refers to actions completed in the recent past) Structure of Sentence Subject+Have/Has+Past Participle+Object Examples: 1. She has lived in Mumbai all her life. 2. I have finished my work. 3. They have bought a new house. 4. Anil has gone home. 5. Ashwini has won a prize. Note: We use present perfect with adverbials such as recently, just, only etc. 1. She has never seen a giraffe. 2. They have just completed the project. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb + NOT + Past Participle + Object 1. You have not done your homework. 2. He has not applied for a job. 3. I have not watched the film. 4. Jane has not read a play. 5. They have not listened to jazz music. 62 Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Past Participle + Object Or Question Word+ Subject+ Auxiliary Verb+ Past Participle Example: 1. Have you sent the mail? 2. Has he bought a new bike? 3. Have the players practiced for the match? 4. What books have you read? 5. Which movie have you watched? D. Present Perfect Continuous Tense It is used to refer to actions that began in the past and continue at the present time; it also shows when the action started in the past or for how long it continued. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (has been/have been) + Present Participle (basic form of the verb) + ing + Time reference Note: The words “since” and “for” are generally used to show the time and duration of the action. “Since” is used to indicate point of time (when exactly the action started in the past) and “for” is used to specify period of time (the duration). Examples: 1. It has been raining since three days. 2. I have been working all day. 3. Nita has been trying to contact you since morning. 4. Rupa has been cleaning the kitchen since 10 am. 5. The players have been practising from the morning. 63 Word and Image I Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (has not been/have not been) + Present 3 Participle (basic form of the verb + ing + Time-reference Examples: 1. He has not been singing since 2009. 2. I have not been talking to him for days. 3. They have not been working since five years. 4. Hari has not been playing the guitar since Friday. 5. It has been raining incessantly in Mumbai. Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb (has/have) + Subject + Been + Present Participle (verb+ing) + Time-reference Or Question Word+ Subject+ Auxiliary Verb+ Present Participle (verb + ing) Examples: 1. Have you been attending classes since the beginning of the semester? 2. Have they been submitting the annual reports? 3. Has he been working in this office for long? 4. Has she been helping track of the events? 5. What have you been doing since I left? 64 Past Tense It is used to refer to actions that occurred in the past. Past tense is further divided into: A. Past Simple is used to: I. Describes actions that happened in the past. Examples: 1. I went to the nearby market. 2. She baked a cake. 3. I drank tea. 4. Sweety lived in Mysore. 5. Aarana danced in yesterday’s program. II. Actions that occurred regularly in the past. Examples: 1. She used to play badminton in college. 2. He worked at a mall. 3. They travelled to work by train. 4. Chetan went to school on a bicycle. 5. Wendy fought a lot with her friends. Structure of Sentence Subject + Verb in the Past form + Object / Adverb of Time Examples: 1. They laughed at the joke. 2. I met a friend at the airport. 3. The children enjoyed the picnic. 4. She went out yesterday. 5. Anila had an exam on Monday. 65 Word and Image I Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (did) + NOT + Basic form of the Verb + Object Examples: 1. She did not meet the guests. 2. They did not like the food. 3. I did not write the letter. 4. My dog did not come home last night. 5. Heena did not bring her book to class. Questions Structure of Sentence Question word/Auxiliary Verb (did) + Subject+ Basic form of the Verb + Object Examples: 1. Did you watch the match? 2. Did the teacher engage the class? 3. Did he report the theft? 4. When did you buy the car? 5. Why didn’t you come yesterday? B. Past Continuous: It is also called past progressive tense. It indicates on-going actions of the past. It describes: I. Action going on at some point in the past. Examples: 1. He was making tea. 2. She was looking for something. 66 3. The students were preparing for the test. 4. I was sitting in the garden. 5. Rachita was watching television. II. Something that happened before and after another action. Examples: 1. She was talking over the phone when someone rang the doorbell. 2. I was working at my laptop when my mother called me. 3. They were shopping when I saw them. 4. I was making salad when she arrived. 5. Radha was watching a movie when I called her. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (was/were) + Present Participle + Object Examples: 1. I was waiting in the car. 2. The children were riding bicycles. 3. The dog was playing with a ball. 4. The lion was roaring. 5. Susan was singing in the living room. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (was/were) + Not + Present Participle + Object 1. I was not listening to him. 2. The kids were not cleaning their room. 3. We were not running in the street. 4. They were not playing on the field. 5. Ann was not doing her work. 67 Word and Image I Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb (was/were) + Subject + Present Participle (Basis form of the verb+ing) + Object OR Question Word+ Auxiliary Verb (was/were) + Subject + Present Participle (Basis form of the verb+ing) + Object/ time Adverbial Examples: 1. Were you learning your lesson? 2. Was he helping his mother? 3. Were they playing music loudly? 4. Who was he talking to? 5. How many hours was she working last night? C. Past Perfect is used to I. Describe two kinds of actions that have taken place in the past, usually one before the other. Examples: 1. The train had left the station before we reached. 2. They had already eaten when I invited them for lunch. 3. Amy had cooked lunch before we got up. 4. The patient had died when the doctor arrived. 5. When I reached Tarun’s house, he had left for work. II. Refer to an event that happened a long time ago. 1. They had visited us several years ago. 2. She had met with an accident in her childhood. 3. Suma had gone Mysore when she was a year old. 4. He had visited his friends in Delhi in 2010. 5. She had seen a bear when she was a child. 68 Structure of Sentence Subject + Had + Past Participle (base Verb+ed/en) + Object Examples: 1. They had saved some money. 2. She had gone to London. 3. She had acted in a few movies. 4. Hari had written a few poems. 5. We had finished the work by sunset. Negative Sentence Structure of Sentence Subject + Had + Not + Past Participle (base Verb+ed/en) + Object Examples: 1. I had not booked the tickets for the match. 2. The candidates had not prepared for the interview. 3. He had not told us the truth. 4. Sunil had not done his work. 5. Razia had not come for the party. Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb (had) + Subject + Past Participle (verb + ed/en) + Object Examples: 1. Had he submitted his project? 2. Had you received the news? 3. Had you known her? 4. Had you studied French before you came to Bangalore? 5. Had she visited Australia before 2015? 69 Word and Image I D. Past Perfect Continuous Tense It is also called past perfect progressive tense. It is used to describe an on-going action that started in the past and continued for some time in the past. “Since” is usually used to show when the action started in the past and “for” is used to specify for how long the action lasted. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (had been) + Present Participle (base form of the verb + ing) + Object + Time-reference Examples: 1. She had been speaking for two hours. 2. He had been working with us since ten years. 3. I had been learning computers for one year. 4. She was very tired. She had been writing all day. 5. Swamy had been reading every morning for a month Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (had Not been) + Present Participle + Object + Time-reference Examples: 1. He had not been taking care of his health for some time. 2. She had not been working since 2015. 3. Children had not been playing in the field since two months. 4. You had not done your homework. 5. Leena had not been sleeping. 70 Questions Structure of Sentence Had + subject + been + Present Participle + Object + Time-reference Examples: 1. Had they been playing regularly? 2. Had he been paying his rent since one year? 3. Had she been lecturing since 2006? 4. Had you been eating? 5. Had you been waiting there for more than four hours when she finally arrived? Future Time It is used to express actions that will happen in the future. It is classified into A. Future Simple It is used to describe an action that will happen in the near or far future. Note: Auxiliary verb “Will/Shall” is used to indicate future Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will/shall) + Base form of the verb + Object Examples: 1. I will see you next week. 2. He will make the announcement in the meeting tomorrow. 3. The group will perform at the show after two days. 4. I hope she will get the job she has applied for. 5. We shall go out in the evening. 71 Word and Image I Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will) + Not + Base form of the verb + Object Examples: 1. He will not go to school. 2. I will not play cricket. 3. They will not help us. 4. Sundar will not get his book from me. 5. She will not come with us tomorrow. Questions Structure of Sentence Auxiliary Verb (will) + Subject + Base form of the verb + Object OR Question Word+ Auxiliary Verb (will) + Subject + Base form of the verb + Object Examples: 1. Will you marry me? 2. Will they buy a new house? 3. Will he complete the work? 4. Will he come tomorrow? 5. Who will win the match on Sunday? B. Future Continuous It is used for actions that will be in progress in the near or distant future. 72 Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will be) + Present Participle Object Examples: 1. I will be speaking at the program tomorrow. 2. She will be performing at an event next month. 3. They will be shifting to a new home by the end of this month. 4. We will be spending the summer in Pune. 5. By this time tomorrow, I will be writing my exam. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will Not be) + Present Participle (+ Object Examples: 1. He will not be working with us. 2. I will not be travelling with them. 3. She will not be enjoying her vacation. 4. Amy will not be running the marathon next week. 5. They will not be visiting us. Questions Structure of Sentence Will + Subject + Be + Present Participle + Object OR Question Word+ Will + Subject + Be + Present Participle + Object Examples: 1. Will you be appearing for the interview? 2. Will he be attending the conference? 3. When will you be meeting the doctor? 4. When will he be coming to see you? 5. Will Sam be writing the exam? 73 Word and Image I C. Future Perfect It is used when the speaker assumes that some action will be completed or happened by a particular time in future. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will have) + Past Participle (base form of the verb+ed/en) + Object Examples: 1. The students will have completed the course in three years. 2. He will have learnt English by the end of this year. 3. I will have joined a university in two years. 4. Suma will have retired by the year 2025. 5. They will have signed documents by next week. Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will Not have) + Past Participle (base form of the verb+ed/en) + Object Note: “won’t” can be used instead of “will not” Examples: 1. He will not have enjoyed the party. 2. They will not have started a new business. 3. She will not have learnt dancing. 4. Sowmya will not have cooked the dinner? 5. They will not have left Jaipur. 74 Questions Structure of Sentence Will + Subject + Have + Past Participle + Object Or Question Word + Will + Subject + Have + Past Participle + Object Examples: 1. Will he have found a house? 2. Will they have bought a car? 3. Will they have obtained permission from the authorities? 4. When will they have quit their jobs? 5. When will she have been here three weeks? D. Future Perfect Continuous It is used to describe on-going actions that will be completed in the future. “Since” is usually used to show when the action will start in the future and “for” is used to specify for how long the action would continue. Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will have been) + Present Participle+ Object + Time-reference Examples: 1. I will have been working in this organization for ten years by 2020. 2. He will have been reading since eight am. 3. She will have been writing her next novel by this time next year. 4. By this time next year, I will have been working on this project for a year. 5. They will have been using my phone for three weeks. 75 Word and Image I Negative Sentences Structure of Sentence Subject + Auxiliary Verb (will NOT have been) + Present Participle (base verb + ing) +object + Time-reference Examples: 1. He will not have been playing for the team in a few years. 2. The company will not have been hiring for five years by 2021. 3. She will not have been living here for two years. 4. I will not have been waiting for you for seven hours. 5. I will not have been attending the wedding before I finish this job. Note: “won’t” can be used instead of “will not” Questions Structure of Sentence Will + Subject + Have been + Present Participle (base verb + ing) +Object OR Question Word+ Will + Subject + Have been + Present Participle (base verb + ing) +Object Examples: 1. Will he have been working on this project? 2. Will she have been looking for a job for three years? 3. Will you have been working in the organisation long before you quit? 4. Who will they have been training before the conference? 5. Will they have been waiting a long time for us? Note: Present simple tense and present continuous tense are also used to indicate future. 76 Examples: 1. The college starts next week. 2. The plane takes off at 6 am tomorrow. 3. The museum opens at 10 tomorrow. 4. I am playing in the upcoming series. 5. We are celebrating Diwali in October. Tenses at a Glance Tense Use Affirmative/Negative/Question Simple  action in the A: He speaks. Present present taking N: He does not speak. place regularly, Q: Does he speak? never or several times  facts  actions taking place one after another  action set by a timetable or schedule Present  action taking place A: He is speaking. Progressive in the moment of N: He is not speaking. speaking Q: Is he speaking?  action taking place only for a limited period of time  action arranged for the future 77 Word and Image I Simple Past  action in the past A: He spoke. taking place once, N: He did not speak. never or several Q: Did he speak? times  actions taking place one after another  action taking place in the middle of another action Past  action going on at A: He was speaking. Progressive a certain time in the N: He was not speaking. past Q: Was he speaking?  actions taking place at the same time  action in the past that is interrupted by another action Present  putting emphasis on A: He has spoken. Perfect the result N: He has not spoken. Simple Q: Has he spoken?  action that is still going on  action that stopped recently  finished action that has an influence on the present  action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking 78 Present  putting emphasis A: He has been speaking. Perfect on the course or N: He has not been speaking. Progressive Q: Has he been speaking? duration (not the result)  action that recently stopped or is still going on  finished action th

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