Final Exam Study Guide (Spring 2024) PDF

**Final Exam Study Guide** For chapters 1-8, use the exam 1-3 study guides, which are included in this document. You will need to know how to apply all 3 major theoretical perspectives (Functionalist, Conflict, Symbolic Interaction) to each chapter and the sociological imagination. **[Chapter 9]*...

**Final Exam Study Guide** For chapters 1-8, use the exam 1-3 study guides, which are included in this document. You will need to know how to apply all 3 major theoretical perspectives (Functionalist, Conflict, Symbolic Interaction) to each chapter and the sociological imagination. **[Chapter 9]** **Social Stratification** Definition: A system where society ranks people into layers based on wealth, power, and prestige. - Example: Upper, middle, and lower classes in the U.S **Caste System** Definition: A system where people are born into a social rank and cannot change it. - Example: India's caste system, where jobs and marriages were traditionally determined by caste. **Absolute Poverty** Definition: Lacking the basic necessities to live, like food, water, or shelter. - Example: A person who cannot afford enough food to meet daily needs. **Relative Poverty** Definition: Being poor compared to others in your society, even if basic needs are met. - Example: A family in the U.S. without a car may be in relative poverty because others around them have cars. **Conspicuous consumption** Definition: Buying things to show off wealth or status. - Example: Purchasing an expensive designer bag, not for utility but to display wealth. **Davis-Moore thesis** Definition: A theory that says society rewards people with higher pay and prestige for doing harder or more important jobs. - Example: Doctors earn more than retail workers because their job is more complex and vital. **Endogamous & exogamous** - Endogamous: Marrying within your social group or class. - Example: Two people from the same religion getting married. - Exogamous: Marrying outside your social group or class. - Example: A wealthy person marrying someone from a lower-income background. **Ideology** Definition: A set of beliefs that justify how society is organized. - Example: The idea of the \"American Dream\" supports the belief that anyone can succeed with hard work, even if opportunities aren't equal. **Inter & Intragenerational mobility** Intergenerational Mobility: Social movement across generations in a family. - Example: A child of a janitor becomes a professor. Intragenerational Mobility: Social movement during a person's own lifetime. - Example: A person starts as a fast-food worker and becomes a restaurant owner. **Socioeconomic Status (SES)** Definition: A combination of income, education, and occupation used to rank people in society. - Example: A lawyer with a high income and advanced education has a high SES. **Status Consistency** Definition: When someone's income, education, and occupation align at the same level. - Example: A professor earns a decent salary, has a PhD, and is respected in society (all high status). **Theoretical perspectives** 1\. Functionalist Perspective - Focus: Stratification serves a purpose in society by motivating people to fill important roles. - Example: Doctors are paid more because their role is essential for society's health and requires years of education. 2\. Conflict Perspective - Focus: Stratification benefits the wealthy and powerful, keeping inequality alive. - Example: Rich families pass wealth to their children, making it hard for poor families to move up. 3\. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - Focus: Stratification is reflected in daily interactions and how people use symbols to show status. - Example: Wearing branded clothes signals wealth, and people treat you differently based on what they think of your status. **[Chapter 11]** **Race** Definition: A category of people based on physical traits like skin color or facial features, often assigned social meanings. - Example: Black, White, Asian. **Ethnicity** Definition: A shared cultural identity based on language, religion, traditions, or ancestry. - Example: Hispanic or Latino ethnicity includes shared customs and language. **Minority groups** Definition: Groups that are singled out for unequal treatment and lack power compared to the dominant group. - Example: African Americans facing systemic racism in the U.S. **Dominant group** Definition: The group with more power, privilege, and social status in society. - Example: White Americans historically holding privilege in the U.S. **Scapegoat Theory** Definition: Blaming a minority group for societal problems to divert attention from the actual causes. - Example: Immigrants being blamed for economic downturns. **Theoretical Perspectives** 1\. Functionalist Perspective - Focus: Race and ethnic inequalities help stabilize society (though this is often harmful). - Example: Immigrant groups often take low-paying jobs, which some argue benefits the economy. 2\. Conflict Perspective - Focus: Race and ethnic divisions are created and maintained by dominant groups to oppress minorities and maintain power. - Example (Conflict Perspective continued): Policies that limit voting access for minority groups to maintain political dominance by the majority group. 3\. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - Focus: Race and ethnicity are social constructs reflected and reinforced in daily interactions and symbols. - Example: Stereotypes perpetuated in media influence how people perceive and interact with others of different races. **Prejudice** Definition: Preconceived, negative beliefs or attitudes about a group based on race or ethnicity. - Example: Assuming someone is lazy because of their racial background without any evidence. **Discrimination** Definition: Actions or behaviors that treat people unfairly based on race or ethnicity. - Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their ethnic background. **Racism (different types)** Definition: A system of beliefs or actions that promote inequality or discrimination based on race. - Types: - Individual Racism: Personal biases or actions. - *Example*: A person making racial slurs. - Institutional Racism: Discrimination embedded in social systems. - *Example*: Racial disparities in criminal sentencing. **Colorblind Racism** Definition: Ignoring racial differences under the guise of treating everyone equally, which allows inequalities to persist. - Example: Saying \"I don't see color\" while ignoring systemic racial disparities. **White privilege** Definition: Advantages experienced by White individuals simply because of their race. - Example: Feeling confident that race won't negatively affect a job interview outcome. **Pluralism** Definition: A state where multiple racial or ethnic groups maintain their distinctiveness while coexisting equally in society. - Example: Switzerland's acceptance of multiple languages and cultures within one country. **Assimilation** Definition: When a minority group adopts the culture of the dominant group and loses its original identity. - Example: Immigrants learning English and abandoning their native language over generations. **History of different races and ethnic groups in the United States** African Americans: Enslaved for centuries, followed by segregation and systemic racism (Jim Crow laws, Civil Rights Movement). Native Americans: Suffered displacement, genocide, and forced assimilation (e.g., Indian Removal Act, boarding schools). Hispanic/Latino Americans: Faced economic exploitation and cultural stigmatization, such as farm labor exploitation. Asian Americans: Experienced exclusion laws (Chinese Exclusion Act) and internment during WWII. White Ethnic Groups: Groups like Irish and Italians initially faced prejudice but assimilated into the dominant culture over time. **[Chapter 12]** **Sex** Definition: Biological and physical differences between males, females, and intersex individuals (e.g., reproductive organs, chromosomes). - Example: Males typically have XY chromosomes, and females have XX chromosomes. **Gender** Definition: Social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male, female, or nonbinary. - Example: Associating women with caregiving roles and men with leadership roles. **Gender roles** Definition: Expectations about how people should behave based on their gender. - Example: Women are often expected to be nurturing, while men are expected to be assertive. **Gender Identity** Definition: A person's internal sense of their gender, which may or may not align with their sex assigned at birth. - Example: Someone may be assigned female at birth but identify as male. **Transgender** Definition: A person whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth. - Example: A person born biologically male who identifies and lives as a woman. **Heterosexism** Definition: The assumption that heterosexuality is the norm, leading to prejudice against LGBTQ individuals. - Example: Media primarily depicting heterosexual relationships as the standard. **Discrimination Against LGBTQ people** Definition: Unequal treatment based on sexual orientation or gender identity. - Example: Denying someone housing because they are gay or transgender. **Socialization (gender)** Definition: The process of learning societal norms and roles for gender through family, media, education, and peers. - Example: Giving boys toy trucks and girls dolls as children reinforces traditional gender roles. **Gender Pay Gap** Definition: The average difference in earnings between men and women for the same work or qualifications. - Example: Women earning 82 cents for every dollar earned by men (in the U.S.). **The Glass Ceiling** Definition: An invisible barrier preventing women and minorities from reaching top leadership roles despite qualifications. - Example: Women rarely being promoted to CEO positions in large corporations. **Theoretical Perspectives** 1\. Functionalist Perspective - Focus: Gender roles are functional for society and contribute to stability. - Example: Traditional family roles (men as breadwinners, women as caregivers) help maintain order, though outdated today. 2\. Conflict Perspective - Focus: Gender inequality arises from power struggles where men historically hold dominance. - Example: The pay gap and lack of women in leadership roles reflect societal power imbalances. 3\. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - Focus: Gender is constructed and reinforced through everyday interactions and symbols. - Example: Greeting girls as \"sweet\" and boys as \"strong\" reinforces gender stereotypes. **Sexuality around the World** Definition: Attitudes and practices related to sexuality vary widely by culture and region. - Example: - In the Netherlands, same-sex marriage has been legal since 2001, showing cultural acceptance. - In some countries, like Saudi Arabia, LGBTQ relationships are illegal, reflecting restrictive norms. **Pages 2 and 3 are the study guides from exams 1, 2 and 3. In addition to chapters 9, 11** **and 12, any material from the previous exams may be covered on your final exam** **[Exam 1 (Ch 1 & 2)]** **Symbolic Interactionism** Definition: A theory that focuses on how individuals interact using symbols (like language and gestures) and create shared meanings. - Example: A wedding ring symbolizes marriage and commitment. **Conflict Theory** Definition: A theory that emphasizes power struggles between different groups in society, often focusing on inequality and competition. - Example: The wage gap between workers and executives reflects economic inequality. **Structural Functionalism** Definition: A theory that sees society as a system of interconnected parts working together for stability. - Example: Schools educate children, which prepares them for roles in the workforce, contributing to society's functioning. **Auguste Comte** Who: The \"Father of Sociology.\"\ Contribution: Coined the term sociology and proposed the use of scientific methods to study society. **Harriet Martineau** Who: Early sociologist and feminist.**\ **Contribution: Advocated for social justice and studied the relationship between economics, politics, and women's rights. **Karl Marx** Who: Philosopher and economist.\ Contribution: Developed Conflict Theory, focusing on class struggles between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers). **Emile Durkheim** Who: Sociologist known for his work on social integration and functionalism.\ Contribution: Studied how social structures maintain stability and coined the term *social facts.* **Herbert Spencer** Who: Sociologist who applied the theory of evolution to society.\ Contribution: Known for \"survival of the fittest\" and viewing society as an organism. **Max Weber** Who: Sociologist who introduced the concept of *Verstehen* (understanding).\ Contribution: Studied bureaucracy and the role of religion in capitalism. **W.E.B. Dubois** Who: Sociologist and civil rights activist.\ Contribution: Focused on race and double consciousness---the idea of seeing oneself through the eyes of others. **Charles Cooley** Who: Sociologist known for the \"Looking-Glass Self.\"\ Contribution: Proposed that self-concept is shaped by how we think others perceive us. **Geroge Hebert Mead** Who: Sociologist and psychologist.\ Contribution: Developed Symbolic Interactionism and the theory of the self (preparatory, play, and game stages). **Why study Sociology** Reason: To understand how human behavior is shaped by social forces, culture, and institutions. - Example: Understanding how family influences individual choices. **Society** Definition: A group of people sharing a common culture and territory. - Example: American society. **Macro & Micro Levels of Analysis** - Macro: Large-scale structures, like institutions. - *Example*: Studying global economic systems. - Micro: Small-scale interactions, like conversations. - *Example*: Observing how friends greet each other. **Social Facts** Definition: Patterns in society that influence behavior. - Example: Laws and norms, like wearing clothes in public. **Constructivism** Definition: The belief that reality is socially constructed through shared ideas. - Example: Money has value because people agree it does. **Secondary Data Analysis** Definition: Using existing data collected by others for research. - Example: Analyzing census data. **Participant Observation** Definition: A research method where the researcher actively engages in the group being studied. - Example: Joining a community group to study their culture. **Independent and Dependent Variables** - Independent: The variable that is manipulated. - *Example*: Hours of study. - Dependent: The variable that changes as a result. - *Example*: Test scores. **The Scientific Method (all the steps)** Steps: 1. Ask a question. 2. Research existing knowledge. 3. Formulate a hypothesis. 4. Conduct a study. 5. Analyze data. 6. Draw conclusions. 7. Publish findings. **Hypothesis\ **Definition: A testable prediction. - Example: Students who study more will score higher on tests. **Validity** Definition: Whether a study measures what it claims to. - Example: A test on math skills should assess math, not reading. **Reliability** Definition: Whether a study produces consistent results. - Example: A thermometer consistently showing the same temperature for a fixed object. **Operational Definition** Definition: How a concept is measured in a study. - Example: Defining \"success\" as earning over \$100,000 annually. **Case Study** Definition: An in-depth study of one subject or situation. - Example: Examining a single school's approach to teaching. **Ethnography** Definition: A research method involving immersion in a community to observe and describe it. - Example: Living in a remote village to study local traditions. **Value Neutrality** Definition: Avoiding personal biases in research. - Example: Reporting findings objectively, even if they contradict personal beliefs. **Correlation** Definition: A relationship between two variables, but not causation. - Example: Ice cream sales and crime rates increase during summer. **Field Research** Definition: Collecting data in a natural setting. - Example: Observing interactions in a coffee shop. **Ethics in Research** Definition: Guidelines to ensure participants are treated respectfully and research is conducted honestly. - Example: Gaining informed consent from participants. **The Tuskegee Experiment** Definition: A notorious unethical study where African American men with syphilis were denied treatment to study the disease\'s progression. - Lesson: Highlighted the importance of ethical standards in research. **[Exam 2 (Ch. 3-5)]** **Culture** Definition: Shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group. - Example: Food, language, and traditions like celebrating Diwali or Thanksgiving. **Society** Definition: A group of people who live in a shared community and culture. - Example: American society. **Material & Non-Material Culture** - Material Culture: Physical objects associated with a group. - *Example*: Smartphones, clothing, or art. - Non-Material Culture: Ideas and beliefs. - *Example*: Religious practices, language. **Ethnocentrism** Definition: Judging another culture by the standards of your own. - Example: Believing your country\'s food is superior to all others. **Cultural Relativism** Definition: Understanding a culture in its own terms. - Example: Respecting another religion\'s practices even if they differ from your own. **Culture Shock** Definition: Disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar culture. - Example: Feeling confused when traveling to a country with different social norms. **Sanctions** Definition: Rewards or punishments to enforce norms. - Example: Getting a speeding ticket (negative sanction). **Ideal/Real Culture** - Ideal Culture: Values society claims to uphold. - *Example*: Honesty is important. - Real Culture: What actually happens. - *Example*: People sometimes lie. **Norms** - Formal Norms: Written rules. - *Example*: Laws against theft. - Informal Norms: Unwritten expectations. - *Example*: Saying \"thank you.\" **Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis** Definition: Language shapes how we perceive reality. - Example: Some languages have multiple words for snow, influencing how speakers think about it. **Subculture** Definition: A group within society that has distinct values or behaviors. - Example: Skateboarding culture. **Counterculture** Definition: A group that opposes the dominant culture. - Example: The hippie movement of the 1960s. **Émile Durkheim - Functionalist Theory** Definition: Belief that society is held together by shared values and norms, functioning like a body. - Example: Religion provides moral guidance. **Collective Conscience** Definition: Shared beliefs and values in a society. - Example: Laws against theft reflect collective morality. **Anomie** Definition: A state of normlessness leading to disconnection. - Example: People feeling lost during rapid social change. **Karl Marx - Conflict Theory** Definition: Society is shaped by conflicts between the rich (bourgeoisie) and the poor (proletariat). **Bourgeoisie** Definition: The wealthy class controlling resources. - Example: Factory owners. **Proletariat** Definition: The working class selling their labor. - Example: Factory workers. **Thomas Theorem** Definition: If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. - Example: Believing in ghosts can lead to real fear. **Self-Fulfilling Prophecy** Definition: When a belief causes itself to become true. - Example: Thinking you'll fail a test and then not studying, leading to failure. **Role Strain** Definition: Difficulty meeting the expectations of a single role. - Example: A student struggling to balance homework and extracurricular activities. **Role Conflict** Definition: Conflict between roles of different statuses. - Example: A parent missing work to care for a sick child. **Statuses** - Achieved Status: Earned through effort. - *Example*: Becoming a doctor. - Ascribed Status: Assigned at birth. - *Example*: Being born into royalty. **Impression Management** Definition: Controlling how others perceive you. - Front Stage: Public persona. - *Example*: Acting professional at work. - Back Stage: Private self. - *Example*: Relaxing at home. - Personal Front: Props and behavior used to present an image. - *Example*: Wearing a suit to appear competent. **Looking-Glass Self** Definition: Developing self-concept based on others' reactions. - Example: Seeing yourself as funny because others laugh at your jokes. **Nature vs. Nurture** Definition: Debate about whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) shapes behavior. **George Herbert Mead's Theory of Self** Definition: The self develops through interaction. - Stages: 1. Preparatory Stage: Imitation. 2. Play Stage: Role-playing. 3. Game Stage: Understanding multiple roles. **Generalized Other** Definition: Awareness of societal expectations. - Example: Knowing not to interrupt a teacher. **Social Group Agents - Socialization** Definition: Groups influencing behavior and norms. - Example: Family, friends, peers. **Institutional Agents - Socialization** Definition: Institutions influencing behavior. - Example: Schools teaching discipline. **Resocialization** Definition: Learning new norms when entering a different environment. - Example: Military boot camp. **Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development and Gender** Definition: Carol Gilligan proposed that men and women think about morality differently: - Men: Focus on rules and justice. - Women: Focus on care and relationships. **[Exam 3 (Ch. 6-8)]** **Groups (Primary & Secondary)** - **Primary Groups**: Small, close-knit, long-term groups (e.g., family, close friends) that impact personal identity and emotional well-being. - **Secondary Groups**: Larger, more impersonal, goal-oriented groups (e.g., coworkers, clubs) where relationships are often temporary. **Aggregate** A collection of people who share a physical space but do not see themselves as belonging together (e.g., people in a waiting room). **In-Group and Out-Group** - **In-Group**: A group one feels loyalty and belonging toward. - **Out-Group**: A group one feels opposition or rivalry toward. **Reference Group** A group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves (e.g., peers, cultural icons). **Expressive and Instrumental Functions** - **Expressive Functions**: Focus on emotional support and relationship building. - **Instrumental Functions**: Focus on achieving tasks and goals. **Leadership Types and Styles** - **Authoritarian**: Leader makes all decisions, expects obedience. - **Democratic**: Leader encourages group participation. - **Laissez-faire**: Leader is hands-off, allowing group members freedom. **Conformity** Adjusting behavior or beliefs to align with group norms. **Asch's Research** Study on conformity shows people will conform to group consensus even if it's obviously wrong, due to pressure to fit in. **Organization Types** - **Normative**: Voluntary membership (e.g., clubs). - **Coercive**: Membership is forced (e.g., prisons). - **Utilitarian**: Members join for material rewards (e.g., jobs). **Bureaucracies** Formal organizations with hierarchical structure, standardized procedures, and impersonal relationships. **Iron Rule of Oligarchy** A concept stating that all organizations, regardless of how democratic they are, will eventually develop oligarchies. **McDonaldization** The process of society adopting characteristics of fast-food chains: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. **Deviance** Behavior that violates social norms. **Social Control & Order** Mechanisms a society uses to regulate individual and group behavior to maintain social order. **Sanctions** Penalties or rewards for behavior. - **Positive Sanctions**: Rewards for conformity (e.g., praise). - **Negative Sanctions**: Punishments for deviance (e.g., fines). **Functionalism and Deviance** Functionalist perspective views deviance as a necessary part of society that promotes social stability and innovation. **Merton's Strain Theory** Argues deviance results from the strain between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. - Types: **Conformity**, **Innovation**, **Ritualism**, **Retreatism**, **Rebellion**. **Social Disorganization Theory** Claims that deviance is more likely in communities with weak social ties and lack of social institutions. **Robert Sampson and Bryon Groves Research** Found that communities with high levels of poverty and family disruption have higher rates of deviance. **Conflict Theory and Deviance** Views deviance as a result of social inequality, where laws serve the interests of powerful groups. **C. Wright Mills's Power Elite** Concept describing a small, powerful group of people (military, corporate, political leaders) who hold most of society\'s power. **Labeling Theory (Primary & Secondary Deviance)** Suggests that deviance is a result of society's labels. - **Primary Deviance**: Initial act of rule breaking. - **Secondary Deviance**: When a person accepts the deviant label and continues deviant behavior. **Techniques of Neutralization** Methods used by people to justify or rationalize deviant behavior (e.g., denial of injury, appeal to higher loyalties). **Types of Crimes** - **Violent Crimes**: Acts against people (e.g., murder). - **Property Crimes**: Acts against property (e.g., theft). - **White-Collar Crimes**: Financially motivated, nonviolent crimes (e.g., fraud). **The Criminal Justice System** Comprises law enforcement, courts, and corrections that manage criminal offenses and maintain public safety. **Policing and Race** Examines the relationship between law enforcement practices and racial discrimination. **Knowledge Gap** Refers to the disparity in information access between different socioeconomic groups. **Disruptive Technology** Innovations that alter industries or societal functions by introducing new products or methods. **E-Readiness** A society\'s ability to use digital tools and access information online. **Cyberfeminism** The application of feminism to digital spaces, aiming to address gender inequalities in technology. **Media Globalization** The spread of media technologies and content across global boundaries. **The Effects of Constant Contact** Examines the impacts of perpetual digital connectivity on personal life and well-being. **Technophiles** People who embrace and celebrate technology, viewing it as a positive force. **Conflict Perspective on Media** Views media as tools for powerful groups to maintain control, influence public perception, and perpetuate inequality. **Functionalist Perspective on Media** Sees media as a means of promoting social stability and integration by disseminating common values. **Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Media** Focuses on how media messages are interpreted by individuals and groups, emphasizing the role of interaction and meaning making.