Module 1 Concepts of Human Ecosystems and Ecological Interactions PDF

MODULE 1 CONCEPTS OF HUMAN Resilience measure of the degree of ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN change a system can undergo while still ECOLOGICAL INTERACTION maintaining its basic elements or...

MODULE 1 CONCEPTS OF HUMAN Resilience measure of the degree of ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN change a system can undergo while still ECOLOGICAL INTERACTION maintaining its basic elements or relationships ECOLOGY - Coined by Haeckel in 1870 which Stability measure of the speed with which a means “the study of economy, system returns to equilibrium after household, and of the organism..” absorbing disturbances ECOSYSTEM Systems with high-resilience but low - The model of the cycle of the energy stability may undergo continual and and matter including the organic profound changes but still continue to exist entities, and its linkages to inorganic as a system; that is, their constituent parts entities. persist together even though they take a - All organism depend on energy and very long time to return to their initial states matter - The concept of ecosystem gives us System with high stability but low a way of describing how human resilience, may show little change when populations influence and are suffering some disturbances but then influenced by their surroundings collapse suddenly (Bates & Tucker, 2010) (Bates and Tucker, 2010). - Chart and quantify the flow of energy Types of Ecosystem and nutrients and specify interaction critical for the maintenance of any Natural System local population. - Not perceptibly altered by Importance of the concept of the humans ecosystem - Actual and historical role of humans 1. Can be applied to any environment in the functioning of the ecosystem 2. Allow us to describe humans in is nil or almost nil. dynamic interaction with one - species composition, and species another, with other species, and with number are uninfluenced physical environment - Geomorphic, ecological, and biological processes are almost Continuity and Change in Ecosystem undisturbed by humans. - EXAMPLE: Highest part of the mountain, undisturbed parts of the seas, lakes, rivers, tundras, etc, and Primeval Natural Forest Ecosystem Semi-natural Ecosystem  - Altered by human actions, but Points out its key role of providing support which retain significant native to its members for its survival by forming elements relationships of care. - Unaltered species composition to just using the natural Systems theory identify community as the background-soil and water by man amalgamation of different units or - Almost all ecosystem resulting from sub-systems that jointly work towards “traditional” forms of agricultural land achievement of community goal uses as steppes, puszta’s, and wooded meadows falls in this Human Settlements category - Totality of the human community whether city, town, or village - with Artificial Ecosystem all the social , material, organizational, spiritual, and cultural - Human-made system of plants, elements animals, and people living in an - Five Ekistics of Constantino area together with their Doxiadis: Nature, Man, Society, surroundings Shells, Networks - Zoo parks create artificial ecosystems by placing animals in Human Ecological Frameworks human-made areas similar to their natural habitat. 1. ACTOR-BASED MODEL - Labeled by Orlove (1980); reflects Human System both anthropologists’ general concern with individual decision Family - basic foundation of social making-processes, and evolutionary organization comprised of individuals biologists’ current preoccupation associated by blood relationship, legal with showing that natural selection union, adoption, or consensual affiliation operates exclusively at the level of individual organisms Organizations - come in many forms. - Individuals are assumed to be Random group of people who making choices about how to exploit spontaneously come together to address a available resources while coping short-term need. May be carefully collected with environmental hazards aligned, and integrated group of people who - Those who make correct choices came together for the long-term to address will survive and prosper; those a long-term need, such as stopping poverty who less will be selected against. Community - the theory of human ecology explains ‘community as the structure of relationships through which a localized population meets its daily requirements’.  ecosystem (e.g. migration, colonization) - Diffusion, and acculturation - 4 Relational Aspects: 1. Input from ecosystem into social system 2. Input from social system into ecosystem 3. Changes in institution making up the social system in response to inputs from the 2. ECOSYSTEM-BASED MODEL ecosystem - Relationship of human populations 4. Changes in ecosystem in to specific ecosystem response to inputs from - Ecosystem rather than culture social system - Emphasize the biological survival of populations rather than the persistence of the sociocultural systems which these population participate - Pigs for the Ancestors (1968) by Roy Rappaport 4. HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS MODEL 3. SOCIAL SYSTEM WITH THE ECOSYSTEMS MODEL - Interacts but retain their integrity as system - Recognized that each system receives energy, material, and information from the other and these inputs also influence its structure and functioning - Ecosystem may also be changed from the inputs of the other  Akin to the Systems Model of Human Ecology where human systems interact with the environment, and that human systems acts as the steward of the environment while the latter provides socio-ecosystem services to the human systems. CHE 4 Goals anchored on human ecological security: 4 Levels of the Domain of Human 1. Ensuring Environmental Integrity Ecology according to Dr. Eusebio (1984) 2. Empowering Organization and 1. Individual Institution 2. Family 3. Attaining Food and Nutrition Security 3. Community 4. Developing Human Potentials 4. Larger System MODULE 1.1 SYSTEMS APPROACHES The internal environment is the ON HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS individual man, while the external environment is composed of the family, System Thinking community , and ecosystem - ‘General system theory’ concerned with the general properties of the Central subject of human ecology is the structures and functions of systems individual man and the upgrading of this as such, rather than with their human capital. specific contents To understand man’s needs and his Application of Systems Approaches problem; there is a need to characterize his features and concerns, his surroundings Ecosystem Approach and the evolving settings - A strategy for the integrated management of land, water, and Human decisions and actions have living resources which promotes effects at all levels of their environment, conservation and sustainable use in turn, humans are affected by the in an equitable way. resulting conditions in the environment - Focus on the levels of biological at all levels organisation, which encompass essential structure, processes, functions, and interactions among organisms and their environment recognizing that humans, with their cultural diversity are an integral component of many ecosystems The Interlinkages between ecosystems, Watershed Approach natural hazards and disasters - Watershed is a topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system. - The size of watersheds ranges from two hectares (White and Runge, 1995) to 30,000 ha (World Bank, 2007). - Based on the scale WSM is differently known or termed across the world - in the Americas it is Ecosystem provides variety of good and termed as river basin services upon which people directly or management; in Europe it is indirectly depend on (Christensen et al., termed as catchment 1996) management. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Watershed (2005) - A hydrologic unit that has been 1. Supporting (nutrients cycling, described and used both as a pollination) physical-biological unit and as a 2. Provisioning (food, timber) socio-economic and 3. Regulatory (erosion control, climate socio-political unit for planning and regulation, carbon storage, hazard implementing resource management mitigation) activities 4. Cultural (recreational, spirituality) Watershed Development Healthy ecosystems serve as buffers and - Purely technical provide a basis for the use of provisioning, regulating, and cultural services. Watershed Management - Technical and non-technical aspects of resource management - Holistic and integrated involving hydrological, biophysical, and socio-economic system - Deals with changes in institutional arrangements required for collective action situations - It ranges from soil and water conservation, to rangeland protection, protecting rivers / reservoirs (irrigation) to protecting  reservoirs (hydro plants), to natural and social systems from enhancing ecosystem services and the mountain ‘ridges’ of volcanic to improving land productivity in rain islands, through coastal fed regions. watersheds and habitats, and across coastal lagoons to the - Purpose varies from region to fringing ‘reef’ environments region or country to country associated with most PSIDS. depending on regional and national priorities - The integration of freshwater watershed management with coastal - People’s participation as key factor area management is essential to to effective implementation of the foster effective cross-sectoral program coordination in the planning and management of land, water and - Combination of ‘science and coastal uses. art’/’technology and philosophy - philosophy of cross-sectoral Integrated Watershed Management coordination in the planning and (IWSM) management of freshwater use, sanitation, wastewater treatment and - the process of formulating and pollution control, sustainable land implementing a course of action use and forestry practices, balancing involving natural and human coastal livelihoods and biodiversity resources in a watershed, taking conservation, hazard risk reduction, into account social, political, and climate variability and change economic and institutional factors operating within the watershed and its surroundings to achieve certain ‘Community to Cabinet’ Approach socio-economic and ecological - Integration of communities, objectives. stakeholders, and national governments within such a cross-sectoral planning framework Ridge to Reef Approach - The Ridge to Reef (R2R) approach - effective engagement and is a ‘‘whole-of-ecosystem’ or participation of stakeholders in the integrated management approach. planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of - In Pacific Small Island Developing initiatives aimed at fostering States (PSIDS), Ridge to Reef refers integrated approaches to natural to integrated approaches to resource and environmental freshwater and coastal area management in PSIDS management emphasizing the interconnections between the Three Types of System - E.g. El Niño, which changes temperature, rain and wind patterns Isolated System in many regions over about 2 – 7 - Has no interaction beyond its years boundary lane - also called natural variability. - Use in controlled experiment Climate Change Closed System - “a systematic change in the - Transfer energy across its boundary long-term state of the atmosphere but no matter over multiple decades or longer.” Open System - Scientists use statistical tests to - Transfer both energy and matter determine the probability that - E.g. ecosystem changes in the climate are within the range of natural variability MODULE 2 SCIENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE - A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using Weather statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its - the temperature, humidity, properties and that persists for an precipitation, cloudiness and wind extended period, typically decades that we experience in the or longer. atmosphere at a given time in a specific location - May be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to Climate persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere - the average weather over a long or in land use. time period (30 – 50 years) in a region - “The Philippines experiences the Southwest monsoon (Habagat) and Northeast monsoon (Amihan)” - mean and variability of temperature, precipitation and wind over a period of time, ranging from months to millions of years Climate Variability  ver the long term, the amount of incoming O solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and - natural variation in climate that atmosphere is balanced by the Earth and occurs over months to decades. atmosphere releasing the same amount of outgoing longwave radiation. surface and ocean 2. Changes in global water cycle About half of the incoming solar radiation is 3. Declining glaciers and snowpack absorbed by the Earth’s surface. 4. Sea Level Rise 5. Ocean Acidification This energy is transferred to the atmosphere by warming the air in contact Critical Environment changes in the with the surface (thermals), by Philippine context evapotranspiration and by longwave 1. Extreme or average temperature radiation that is absorbed by clouds and 2. Extreme rainfall and intense storm greenhouse gases. 3. Sea Level Rise 4. Ocean Acidification The atmosphere in turn radiates longwave Sea Temperature energy back to Earth as well as out to space. What causes climate change? - Imbalance caused by Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) released since Industrial Revolution (~1800’s) - GHGs: Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Black carbon, Fluorinated gases Change in intensity of Typhoons by Decades Classification of Tropical cyclones by PAGASA (MArch 2022) - TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of up to 62 kilometers per hour (kph) or less than 34 nautical miles per hour (knots). - TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph or 34 - 47 knots. - SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS) , a tropical cyclone with maximum Climate change is causing five critical wind speed of 87 to 117 kph or 48 - global environmental changes 63 knots. - TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone 1. Warming temperature of Earth’s with maximum wind speed of 118 to  184 kph or 64 - 99 knots. - SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed exceeding 185 kph or more than 100 knots Sea Level Rise MODULE 2.1 CONCEPT OF CCA AND DRR Ocean Acidification Climate Extreme - Also known as extreme weather or climate event - The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the Ocean Acidification exacerbates the range of observed values of the decline in fish supply brought about by variable. overfishing practices. Caused by CO2? - both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred to collectively as ‘climate extremes.’ Vulnerability - The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability to climate change - the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.  - a function of the character, in the mean, range or variability of magnitude and rate of climate temperature) or indirect (e.g. change and variation to which a damages caused by an increase in system is EXPOSED, its the frequency of coastal flooding due SENSITIVITY, and its ADAPTIVE to sea level rise). CAPACITY Factors that could influence sensitivity to climate change 1. Physical and Mental Health and Age 2. Extent to which products and services are affected by climate stimuli (sectors) 3. Extent to which physical structure and their services are affected by climate stimuli (assets and infrastructure) 4. Health, connectivity, and robustness of the ecosystem Potential Impact Exposure - impacts of climate change are the - The presence of people; livelihoods; effects of climate change on natural environmental services and (e.g. water resources, biodiversity, resources; infrastructure; or soil, etc) and human systems (e.g. economic, social, or cultural assets agriculture, health, tourism, etc). in places that could be adversely affected - all impacts that may occur given a projected change in climate, without considering adaptation. - Water resources, agriculture, hydrogeological risk, soil, coastal environment, biodiversity and ecosystem, tourism, forestry, cultural heritage Sensitivity - Assessing the potential impacts of climate change means evaluating - the degree to which a system or the magnitude of potential effects species is affected, either adversely of climate change which strictly or beneficially, by climate variability depends on exposure and or change. sensitivity. - effect may be direct (e.g. a change - The effects of climate change may in crop yield in response to a change be beneficial or harmful, with most  observations and projections susceptible to impacts, and therefore showing a range of effects on the have an overall high vulnerability environment, economy and society Disaster EXPOSURE + SENSITIVITY = IMPACT -  evere alterations in the normal S EXPOSURE + SENSITIVITY + ADAPTIVE functioning of a community or a CAPACITY= VULNERABILITY society due to hazardous physical events interacting with vulnerable Adaptive Capacity social conditions, leading to widespread adverse human, - the ability of a system to adjust to material, economic, or climate change (including climate environmental effects that require variability and extremes) to immediate emergency response to moderate potential damages, to take satisfy critical human needs and that advantages of opportunities, or to may require external support for cope with the consequences. recovery. Factors that influence adaptive capacity: - “a serious disruption of the 1. Access and ability to process functioning of a community or a information society involving widespread human, 2. Resources to invest in adaptation material, economic or environmental 3. Flexibility of a system to change in losses and impacts, which exceeds response to climate stimuli the ability of a community to cope 4. Willingness to change and adapt using its own resources” (UNISDR, 5. Ability of species to migrate or for 2009). ecosystems to expand into new Disaster Risk zones - The likelihood over a specified time period for the disaster to occur - Interaction of vulnerability and hazard Disaster Risk Management - Processes for designing, implementing, and evaluating -  ssets with high adaptive capacity A strategies, policies, and measures to and low sensitivity/exposure can improve the understanding of tolerate impacts to a greater degree disaster risk, foster disaster risk and therefore have an overall low reduction and transfer, and promote vulnerability. continuous improvement in disaster - Assets with high preparedness, response, and sensitivity/exposure and low recovery practices, with the explicit adaptive capacity are more purpose of increasing human  security, well-being, quality of life, opportunities associated with climate resilience, and sustainable - Specific adaptation options will be development. presented by categories in 1.2.4 Three components of adaptation (Smit et al., 2000) - climate-related stimuli - adaptation to what? - the system - who or what adapts? - the types of processes and form - how does adaptation occur? Climate change adaptation can be expressed as Adaptation - non-structural (policy, planning and - In human systems, the process of employment of soft technology), adjustment to actual or expected - structural in the form of climate and its effects, in order to infrastructures and/or moderate harm or exploit beneficial - a combination of the two options opportunities. Both mitigation and adaptation options - In natural systems, the process of have: adjustment to actual climate and its - specific cost effects; human intervention may - some intended or unintended facilitate adjustment to expected impacts climate. - gained recognition in promoting - to measures taken to reduce the improved well-being of systems harmful impacts of climate change or experiencing climate change take advantage of any beneficial Adaptation Needs and Options opportunities through “adjustments in natural or human systems.” Adaptation needs are the gaps between what might occur as the - Adaptation refers to adjustments in evidence-based changes in climate ecological, social, economic prevails and the desired scenarios systems in response to actual or that the social systems envision expected climatic stimuli and their (IPCC, 2014). effects or impacts (Burton, Challenger, Huq, Klein and Yohe, Adaptation needs require actions 2014). related to climate change adaptation to close the gaps. Numerous - Adaptation includes changes in adaptation options are present. processes, practices and structures to lessen potential There are considerations in selecting damage or to capitalize on adaptation options, for actions that  will address adaptation needs. Municipal Services The adaptation needs arise when the anticipated risks or experienced Food Banks impacts of climate change require - Social action to ensure the safety of populations and the security of Educational assets, including ecosystems and their services are not yet actualized. Sharing local and traditional knowledge Community Surveys Category of Adaptation Options Informational The prominent and widely used belong to the engineering and Early warning and response systems technological category. The contribution of the two other Health early warning System category, social and institutional, Behavioral cannot be discounted. Applying the options under these Migration categories facilitates adaptations and capability-building of social and Soil and Water conservation institutional systems to address the - Institutional burdens of climate change Economic Example of Adaptation Option Insurance - Structural/Physical Saving Group Engineered and built environments Laws and regulations Beach Nourishment Land Zoning Laws Improved Drainages Protected Areas Technological Government and policies Program Water saving Technologies Disaster Planning and Preparedness Rainwater Harvesting City-Level Plans Ecosystem-based Reforestation The systems applying adaptation responses Conservation and replanting mangrove usually consider adaptation options that will forests address vulnerabilities and risks Services The options under the social and Institutional categories are vital in addressing the vulnerabilities and risks not 5. coordination between formal just at the micro- level but in the meso- and governmental, administrative macro-levels agencies, and private sectors and stakeholders to increase efficiency, Considerations in Selection of representation and support for Adaptation Options climate adaptation measures. The adaptation needs are translated as priority adaptation activities that lessen vulnerability. These priority adaptation activities, usually found in the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) or Local Climate Change Adaptation Action Plans, aim to address informational, capacity, financial, institutional, and technological needs of the country in general and the communities in particular. The IPCC (2014) presented considerations in the selection of adaptation options. “Selection and prioritization of adaptation options is important because not all adaptation options will be possible owing to constraints such as insufficient local resources,capacities, and authority” – IPCC 2014 Five factors that enable or restrict institutional adaptation in relation to planning and implementation in both developed and developing countries as Dimension of Coping and Adapting cited by Mimura et al. (2014). 1. multilevel institutional coordination between different political and administrative levels 2. key actors 3. horizontal interplay Resilience 4. political dimensions  - The ability of a system and its ADAPTATION AND DISASTER RISK component parts to anticipate, REDUCTION absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous Different Paradigms on DRM event in a timely and efficient 1. Disaster-resistant community manner, including through ensuring 2. Disaster-resilient community the preservation, restoration, or 3. Sustainable development and improvement of its essential basic sustainable hazard mitigation structures and functions. 4. Invulnerable development 5. Comprehensive Vulnerability - “capability to anticipate, prepare for, Management respond to, and recover from 6. Build Back Better Approach significant threats with minimum damage to social well-being, the economy, and the environment. Disaster-resistant Community - need to minimize vulnerability of communities to natural hazards by maximizing the principles and techniques of mitigation to their development and/or redevelopment in the decision-making process (Geis in McEntire, Fuller, Johnston and Weber, 2002). - Focus on designing and building Transformation of communities such as stringent enforcement of building and - The altering of fundamental land-use planning attributes of a system Disaster Resilient Community - including value systems; regulatory, legislative, or bureaucratic - emphasizes on the concept of regimes; financial institutions; and resilience or the ability to recover technological or biological systems) or bounce back to normalcy after a disaster event strikes (McEntire, Carbon Budget Fuller, Johnston and Weber, 2002). - Global emission cannot exceed 240 billion tons of carbon into Earth’s - Resilience pertains more to the atmosphere cultural, psychological and economic variables related to disasters. MODULE 3.1 FRAMEWORKS, MODELS, - psychological and cultural attitudes AND POLICIES IN CLIMATE CHANGE as well as economic-well-being of  individuals and countries have disasters; important roles in reducing disaster risks. 2. linking development practices to vulnerability reduction; Sustainable Development and Sustainable Hazards Mitigation 3. building DRM institutions - DRM is linked into the sustainable Comprehensive Vulnerability development concept Management - Discusses how localities can - holistic and integrated activities tolerate and overcome damage, directed toward the reduction of diminished productivity and emergencies and disasters by reduced quality of life from diminishing risk and susceptibility disasters without outside and building of resistance and assistance (Mileti, 1999; McEntire, resilience Fuller, Johnston and Weber, 2002). - there need to be a strong political will of leaders to deal with disasters - communities and countries must take responsibility for hazards and Build Back Better Approach disasters, anticipate the uncertain - use of the recovery, rehabilitation and unexpected, reject short-term and reconstruction phases after a thinking, understand more fully the disaster to increase the resilience of impact of social forces on the nations and communities through occurrence of disasters, and integrating disaster risk reduction embrace the principles of measures into the restoration of sustainable development. physical infrastructure and Invulnerable Development societal systems, and into the revitalization of livelihoods, - invulnerable development as economies and the environment development pursued in a manner that reduces vulnerability to Major Concepts and Paradigms in disasters. Climate Change Adaptation - Invulnerable development is a Climate, Atmosphere and Radiative process that seeks to decrease the Forcings: The important role of the frequency and severity of atmosphere (Saludes 2017) emergencies and disasters through liability reduction and capacity 1. Influences the Earth’s global building. energy balance, which is important to maintain the temperature that favors life, survival and growth. Can be Achieved by: 2. A component of 1. altering cultural attitudes about  biogeochemical cycles and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol COP3. influence food systems and production landscapes. Negotiations on adaptation funds were more evident in the 2000s. 3. Provides favorable climate conditions, which is a It is argued that the progression from a requirement to satisfy society’s global to a local level climate change food and energy demands adaptation is considered as evidence of success (Shaw, 2008, Pulhin et al., 2010, Approximately 50% of the incoming solar Lagmay, 2018). radiation (short wave) is absorbed by the surface of the Earth, whilst about 90% of Mitigation the outgoing radiation (long wave) is - Climate change mitigation deals absorbed by the atmosphere. with the efforts that decrease or forestall emission of GHGs. Atmosphere is also an important component - refers to “measures to reduce the of the hydrologic cycle, carbon cycle and amount and speed of future climate nitrogen cycle. change by reducing emissions of heat-trapping gases or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.” Mitigation includes: - Utilization of new technologies and renewable energy, - Changing management practices and - Changing consumer behaviors The work of Shaw (2008) illustrates the evolution of climate change adaptation Climate change mitigation and concept. adaptation are responses of the human and social systems to climate It can be seen that the first Climate Change change and its broader impacts. Conference was held in 1979. Climate change mitigation includes A year after, the Intergovernmental Panel on activities that remove these GHGs Climate Change was established. from the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). Mitigation negotiations were highlighted Climate change mitigation can be during the 90’s with the 1992 Earth Summit applied as a multifaceted approach  that can combine various ways including planning, low energy utilization (energy efficiency), facilities and actions that decrease carbon footprint such as bicycling and walking. Most importantly, increasing ecosystems that serve as carbon sinks. Examples of the carbon sinks are the green and blue carbon ecosystems such as forest and mangrove, respectively. MODULE 2.1 FRAMEWORKS IN THE NATURAL SCIENCE