AHS 101 Module Four 2022-2025 PDF

AHS 101 MODULE FOUR 2022-2025  WORD ROOTS A word root is the foundation of a word. Listed below are word roots and their meanings commonly used in medical terminology. Look up and define each of the examples. Root Meaning...

AHS 101 MODULE FOUR 2022-2025  WORD ROOTS A word root is the foundation of a word. Listed below are word roots and their meanings commonly used in medical terminology. Look up and define each of the examples. Root Meaning Examples Adeno gland adenitis adenoma Aero air aerobe Angio vessel angioma angiocarditis Arterio artery arteriotomy arteriostenosis Blepharo eyelid blepharoplasty blepharoptosis Broncho bronchus bronchoedema bronchogenic Cardio heart cardiologist cardiomegaly Cephalo head cephalodynia cephalopathy Cerebro brain cerebromalacia cerebrospinal Chole bile, cholecystectomy (Cholecyst) gallbladder cholelithiasis Choledocho common bile choledocholithotomy duct choledochoplasty Chondro cartilage chondrocyte chondroid 1 Root Meaning Examples Colo Large intestine colonoscopy colectomy Costo rib intercostal costochondral Cranio skull (cranium) craniotomy cranioplasty Cysto bladder cystoscope (urinary) cystogram Dent tooth dental dentifrice Derm skin dermatitis dermabrasion Entero intestine enteritis (small) enterostomy Erythro red erythrocyte erythrophobia Gastro stomach gastroenteritis gastrogenic Glosso tongue glossoplegia glossorrhaphy Hemo, Hema blood hemoglobin hemoptysis Hepar, Hepato liver hepatitis hepatomegaly 2 Root Meaning Examples Hystero uterus hysterectomy hysteroscope Ileo ileum ileocecal ileotomy Jejuno jejunum jejunostomy jejunitis Laparo abdomen laparoscopy laparotomy Lith stone, calculus nephrolithiasis cholecystolithiasis Myelo spinal cord myelography myelodysplasia Myo muscle myocarditis myocyte Necro death necrosis necrology Nephro kidney nephrectomy nephropexy Neuro nerve neurolysis neuroma Oculo, ophthalmo eye oculomotor ophthalmia Oophor ovary oophorectomy oophoropathy Orchio, orchido testes orchidectomy orchiopexy 3 Root Meaning Examples Osteo bone osteomalacia osteochondritis Path disease pathogen pathologist Pneumo,Pneumon lung; air pneumonectomy pneumothorax Procto anus; rectum proctocolitis proctoscopy Pyelo kidney pelvis pyelonephritis pyelogram Pyo pus pyogenic pyonephrolithiasis Renal kidney renography renogastric Rhino nose rhinorrhea rhinoplasty Salpingo fallopian tube salpingopexy salpingo-oophorectomy Septic pathogenic septicemia organisms septimetritis infection Teno, Tendo tendon tendonitis tenosynovectomy Thoraco chest thoracodynia thoracotomy 4 Root Meaning Examples Thrombo blood clot thrombosis thrombophlebitis Trache trachea tracheotomy tracheostenosis Uni one uniocular unilateral 5  Types of Fractures Definition: Etiology of Fractures: 1. Trauma (an injury or wound) a. Direct Violence b. Indirect Violence 2. Pathological (Spontaneous) Simple fracture 6  Depressed fracture Incomplete/Hairline fracture 7 RELATED TERMS: Stable Unstable SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FRACTURES: DIAGNOSIS OF A FRACTURE: TREATMENT OF FRACTURES: 1. First aid 2. Reduce fracture a. Closed reduction b. Open reduction c. Debridement d. Application of a cast 3. Bone Grafting 4. Electrical stimulation 5. Physical Therapy 8 DEFINE Dislocation: Subluxation: Sprain: BONE HEALING - DIVIDED INTO 3 PHASES: 1. Inflammatory: 2. Reparative: 3. Remodeling: FACTORS INFLUENCING BONE HEALING: 1. Type of bone involved: 2. Amount of local trauma: 3. Bone loss: 4. Age: 5. Delayed union: 6. Non-union: 7. Mal-union: 8. Infection: RELATED TERMINOLOGY: Osteo Arthroplasty Chondro Osteology Myositis Myasthenia Osteitis Myoparalysis Arthrodesis Osteopathy Myorrhaphy Mys; My; Myo Ortho Myalgia Arthrectomy Orthopedics Myodynia Myology Arthro Myokinesis Osteochondritis Arthrology Myectomy Arthritis Osteogenesis 9  GROWTH DISTURBANCES Growth Disturbance: A general term that includes diseases characterized by an increase in tissue mass due to an overgrowth of a particular group of cells. Growth disturbances are also called TUMORS. Tumors may be discovered by 1. Direct vision 2. Palpation 3. X-ray ONCOLOGY: Is the branch of medicine that is concerned with tumor study and treatment. Classification of growth disturbances: 1. HYPERPLASIA: Refers to an increase in cell numbers, thus an increase in the size of tissue. Hyperplasia is an exaggerated response to various stimuli and may be caused by a variety of stimuli. Example: a. Breast hyperplasia in response to pregnancy. b. Lymph node hyperplasia in response to an inflammatory condition. NORMAL HYPERPLASIA 2. NEOPLASMS: Means new growth. Neoplasms are also called tumors and are abnormal growths of cells arising in any organ or tissue of the body. Hyperplasia and neoplasia are differentiated based on cause and growth potential. Diseases due to neoplasms are referred to as neoplastic diseases. CLASSIFICATION OF NEOPLASMS: a. Benign Neoplasms: Are localized and DO NOT INVADE the surrounding tissue. However, benign tumors can DISPLACE or COMPRESS tissue. A benign neoplasm that originates within solid organs or connective tissue compresses tissue around it to form a capsule. They are then referred to as ENCAPSULATED. 10  Capsule formation Encapsulated Tumor Because of this capsule, benign tumors are easily separated from surrounding tissue during removal. Benign tumors that originate on mucosal surfaces, such as that of the colon, are called POLYPS. Polyps are usually tumors on a stalk and may become malignant. MUCOSAL SURFACE POLYP (Tumor on OF COLON a stalk) b. MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS: Called cancer or carcinoma. These tumors INVADE and DESTROY the tissue which surrounds them. Malignant neoplasms may also invade lymph vessels or the circulatory system and are thus transported to other areas of the body. This is called METASTASIS. Metastasis is the most dangerous and life-threatening aspect of malignant neoplasms. ETIOLOGY OF MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS: An accepted premise today is that cancer develops as a result of some irreversible cellular alteration, which produces uncontrolled cellular reproduction and growth. The following are etiological factors that may contribute to this premise: 1. VIRUSES: Most promising area in cancer research. This was doubted originally but proof now exists whereby, certain viruses have caused cancer in animals. Viruses have been identified and photographed in cancerous tumors. Injected animals have developed cancer. 2. CHEMICAL AGENTS: Common are chromium, asphalt, cobalt, tar, soot, certain plastics, air pollutants, asbestos, and hydrocarbons. These may be causes of carcinoma after close and prolonged contact. 11 3. PHYSICAL AGENTS: ie: Skin carcinoma may be caused from over exposure to sunlight, also, trauma (injury) as when a person has ill-fitting dentures. They may develop carcinoma from prolonged injury. 4. HORMONE IMBALANCE: Much to learn in this area. Many questions are being asked: a. Is there a relationship between hormonal action and tumor development? b. Do hormones cause normal cells to change into cancerous cells? c. Do hormones lower the host's resistance to other carcinogens? d. Do hormones promote the growth of tumors caused by other factors? 5. HEREDITY FACTORS: Is there a genetic link, whereby certain families are prone to certain types of tumors? MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO NEOPLASMS Most neoplasms are named by the cell or tissue they resemble plus, a suffix or word indicating type of neoplasm. Example: Benign Neoplasms: The suffix oma is added after the name of the tissue involved: Fibroma - Benign tumor of fibrous tissue. Chondroma - Benign tumor of cartilage. Osteoma - Benign tumor of bone. Hemangioma - Benign tumor involving blood or Angioma lymph vessels. Lipoma - Benign tumor of adipose tissue. Adenoma - Benign tumor of glandular tissue. Myoma - Benign tumor containing muscle tissue. 12 MALIGNANT NEOPLASMS: Either the term carcinoma or sarcoma is usually added to the name of the tissue. (Exceptions exist). Carcinoma: If tumor arises in epithelium. Sarcoma: If tumor arises in nonepithelial tissue. Examples: Epithelium: Adenocarcinoma of the colon: Malignant tumor of colon mucosa. Adenocarcinoma of the breast: Malignant tumor of breast glands. Gastric Carcinoma: Malignant tumor of the mucosa of the stomach. Examples: Nonepithelial: Chondrosarcoma: Malignant tumor of cartilage. Osteosarcoma: Malignant tumor of bone. SEVERAL EXCEPTIONS: Hematoma: This is not a neoplasm; it is a collection of blood. Lymphoma: A malignant tumor of the lymph nodes. Teratoma: A tumor containing either hair, teeth, or skin. Melanoma: A malignant pigmented mole. (Melano=black) Oophoroma: A malignant ovarian tumor. Another Growth Disturbance: 3. HYPERTROPHY: Refers to an increase in cell size. (Not cell numbers) NORMAL HYPERTROPHY Example: Cardiac hypertrophy: Is an increase in the size of the heart resulting from hypertrophy of muscle tissue without an increased number of cells. 13  SlJIUNGU AMO ,.SUIMANDIR!AAR Gt.ANOS ANO OUCTS ESO.,HAGUS ,:_ :;.. "! --- SPLENlC flfXUM OF COLON.,,. 14  GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) consists of organs that form a tube-like passage through the body cavities extending from the mouth to the anus. ORGANS INCLUDE: Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Intestines Rectum Anus ACCESSORY ORGANS attached to this canal by a series of ducts are: Salivary glands Liver Gallbladder Pancreas FUNCTIONS: a. digestion b. absorption c. excretion RELATED TERMS: Ingestion: Process by which foods and fluids are taken into the body. Digestion: Mechanical and chemical process by which food is broken down and converted into an absorbable form. Absorption: Transfer of digested food into the bloodstream and the utilization by the body. Peristalsis: Wavelike movement created by muscle fibers that propels contents through the GI tract. Excretion: Elimination of unusable end products of digestion. 15  PROCESS OF DIGESTION: MOUTH: Mastication Saliva - lubricates food enzymes begin breakdown of starches. PHARYNX: nasopharynx oropharynx laryngopharynx ESOPHAGUS: STOMACH: a. cardiac sphincter b. fundus c. greater curvature d. lesser curvature e. body f. pyloric sphincter g. rugae SMALL INTESTINE: a. duodenum b. jejunum c. ileum LARGE INTESTINE: a. cecum b. colon c. rectum ACCESSORY ORGANS SALIVARY GLANDS: a. parotid b. submandibular (submaxillary) c. sublingual 16 LIVER: Largest internal organ in the body. Digestive function - produce bile which breaks down fats: essential to metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. GALLBLADDER: Stores bile Contracts during digestion to expel bile into duodenum. PANCREAS: Secretes digestive enzymes that flow into the duodenum at the ampulla of Vater. Contains Islets of Langerhans that secrete insulin. TERMINOLOGY: Defecation: Evacuation or emptying of bowels; a bowel movement. Flatus: Gas formed in GI tract during digestion. Feces: Stool; excrement. Body waste containing water, mucus, bacteria, and food residue. a. Melena, melenorrhea: black, tarry stools b. Hematochezia: bright, red blood in stool c. Clay colored stool Constipation: Infrequent evacuation of feces. Diarrhea: Abnormally frequent and liquid stools. DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES 1. Upper GI Series 2. Lower GI Series (Barium enema) 3. Gastric Analysis 4. Endoscopic Procedures Esophagoscopy: Gastroscopy: Colonoscopy: Sigmoidoscopy: 5. Stool Cultures 17  TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO THE PATHOLOGY OF THE GI TRACT Gingivitis: Stomatitis: Glossitis: Pyorrhea Alveolus: Cheilitis: Dental Caries: Periodontal Disease: Hiatus hernia: Esophageal Varices: Gastritis: Enteritis: Gastroenteritis: Peptic Ulcer: Pyloric Stenosis: Intussusception: Appendicitis: Diverticulosis: Diverticulitis: Colitis: Adhesions: Volvulus: Hernia: Intestinal Obstruction: Causes: Symptoms: 18 Polyps: Pedunculated: Sessile: Cholecystitis: Cholelithiasis: Choledocholithiasis: Cirrhosis of the liver: Pancreatitis: TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO TREATMENT Esophagectomy: Gastrostomy: Pyloromyotomy (Pyloroplasty): Gastrectomy: Gastrojejunostomy: Gastroplasty: Ileostomy: Appendectomy: Colon Resection (Colectomy): Colostomy: Herniorrhaphy: Polypectomy: Hemorrhoidectomy: Cholecystectomy: Choledocholithotomy: 19 Genitourinary System- GU Male: bladde EpidByrn'c Glanc pede Female 20  GENITOURINARY SYSTEM The genitourinary system includes the reproductive and urinary organs of both sexes. The urinary system consists of the organs that produce and excrete the waste substance urine from the body. These organs are: 1. Kidneys 2. Ureters 3. Urinary Bladder 4. Urethra 1. KIDNEYS: (Nephro, Reno) a. Hilum b. Cortex c. Medulla d. Pelvis FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS: (functional unit is the nephron) a. Filter waste materials from the blood. b. Excrete these materials in urine. c. Reabsorb essential substances and return them to the blood. d. Maintain fluid, electrolyte, and pH balance (homeostasis). 2. URETERS: (Uretero) Extend from renal pelvis to bladder. Urine passes down ureters by peristalsis and enters the bladder. 3. URINARY BLADDER: (Cysto) Elastic smooth muscle that acts as a reservoir for urine until eliminated from the body. 4. URETHRA: (Urethral) Canal that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior. External opening is called the meatus. 21 UROLOGY: Medical specialty dealing with diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the urinary system in the female and the genitourinary system in the male. URINATION: also referred to as voiding or micturition. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS: 1. URINALYSIS: a. color b. clarity c. ph d. specific gravity e. microscopic analysis 2. URINE CULTURE: 3. CATHETERIZATION: 4. BLOOD TESTS: Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), Creatinine 5. RENAL BIOPSY: 6. CYSTOGRAM: 7. PYELOGRAM: a. Intravenous IVP: b. Retrograde: 8. CYSTOSCOPY: 9. INTAKE AND OUTPUT: TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO URINARY SYSTEM 1. Polyuria: 2. Diuresis: 3. Dysuria: 4. Nocturia: 5. Hematuria: 6. Oliguria: 7. Anuria: 8. Pyuria: 22 PATHOLOGY 1. Nephritis: 2. Pyelonephritis: 3. Nephrosclerosis: 4. Nephroptosis: 5. Nephromegaly: 6. Nephroma: 7. Calculi: a. Nephrolithiasis: b. Ureterolithiasis: c. Cystolithiasis: 8. Hydronephrosis: 9. Cystitis: 10. Urethral Strictures: 11. Epispadias: 12. Hypospadias: TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO TREATMENT: 1. Dialysis: a. hemodialysis: b. peritoneal dialysis: 2. Nephrostomy: 3. Nephrectomy: 4. Ureteronephrectomy: 5. Cystotomy: 6. Cystectomy: 7. Cystostomy: 8. Nephrolithotomy: 8. Ureterolithotomy: 10. Cystolithotomy: 23  WOUNDS AND WOUND HEALING RELATED TERMS: DEGENERATION: A potentially reversible alteration of cells or tissues. NECROSIS: An alteration in the cell if degeneration proceeds to death of tissue. INFLAMMATION: The tissue's response to injury. It is the mechanism whereby the body attempts to prevent the spread of injury & to remove dead cells from the area. REPAIR: The replacement of dead or damaged tissue by new, healthy cells. It may occur by regeneration of the original tissue or replacement by connective tissue. ACUTE DEGENERATION AND NECROSIS COMMON CAUSES: 1. Anoxia (lack of oxygen) 2. Hypoxia (reduced oxygen) a. Localized hypoxia may be due to impaired circulation to an area. (Ischemia.) b. Severe ischemia leads to necrosis of cells. Ischemic necrosis is called an Infarct. 3. Trauma 4. Infections CHRONIC DEGENERATION May produce a decrease in the size or number of cells; referred to as Atrophy. TYPES OF ATROPHY: 1. Senile 2. Disuse 3. Pressure 4. Endocrine INFLAMMATION STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN INFLAMMATION INCLUDE: Blood Vessels Blood Surrounding Connective Tissue 24  INFLAMMATION INJURY DILATED BLOOD VESSELS INCREASED BLOOD FLOW TO AREA (HYPEREMIA) BLOOD VESSEL ENGORGEMENT RESULTS IN SLOWING OF THE RATE OF FLOW (HEAT AND REDNESS RESULT) CAPILLARIES BECOME MORE PERMEABLE FLUID ESCAPES INTO TISSUES (EDEMA & PAIN RESULT) LOCAL SYMPTOMS OF INFLAMMATION: 1. redness 2. heat 3. edema 4. pain 5. loss of function may or may not result CAUSES OF INFLAMMATION: 1. foreign body 2. trauma 3. thermal (heat & cold) 4. electrical or chemical burns 5. microorganisms --- infection 6. radiation PROCESS OF PHAGOCYTOSIS REPAIR The skin is the largest organ in the body. It is the body's first line of defense. Wound healing or repair is nature's way of restoring continuity and strength to injured skin and tissue. It occurs by means of regeneration and fibrous connective tissue repair. REGENERATION: replacement of the destroyed tissue by similar cells. Ex. fractured bone is united by bone. 25 FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE REPAIR: tissue previously present is replaced by fibrous tissue that forms a scar. Ex. Tissues of the abdomen following an incision are united by a scar. CLASSIFICATION OF WOUNDS 1. CONTUSION: (closed wound) Bruise usually caused by impact with a blunt object. Skin is not broken but injury occurs to soft tissue under skin. There is discoloration due to the rupturing of blood vessels. (ECCHYMOSIS) Hematomas may form. 2. ABRASION: Epidermal cells are torn away by friction; a scraping away of a portion of skin or mucous membrane. Ex. skinned knee. 3. INCISION: (Incised wound) Caused by cutting instrument; there are no jagged edges. Large blood vessels & nerves may be severed if wound is deep. Ex. razor blade, surgeon's scalpel. 4. LACERATION: A wound in which the tissue is torn & has ragged, irregular edges. Ex. animal bites; barbed wire. 5. PUNCTURE: Caused by objects that penetrate deep into the tissues, leaving a relatively small surface opening. a. Penetrating- opening where object entered. b. Perforating- opening & exit wound; through & through. 6. AVULSION: Tearing injury that usually involves loss of skin and other tissues. Ex. degloving injury. 7. TRAUMATIC AMPUTATION: Commonly the result of industrial, farm & motorcycle accidents. The ideal treatment is reimplantation. 8. CRUSHING INJURIES: May involve skin, muscle, vessels, tendons & nerves. 9. BURNS: Thermal, electrical, chemical injuries. 26  WOUND HEALING PHASES (STAGES) OF WOUND HEALING: Phase 1. Inflammatory (Lag) phase. Duration - day 1 to day 4. Blood & lymph drain into & through the wound. Fluids form a clot. Fibrin present in fluids forms a lacy network which loosely binds wound edges together. Phase 2. Proliferative (Connective Tissue or Fibroblastic) phase. Duration - day 5 to day 20. Tissue fluids increase. Collagen (principal component of connective tissue) forms. About 20% of final wound strength is reached. Phase 3. Maturation (Remodeling) Phase. Duration - day 21 to years. Collagen contracts pulling wound edges together. Scar achieves maximum strength in 10 - 12 weeks but is always weaker than the tissue it replaces. Wounds never regain more than 70-80% of the intact skin strength. Wound healing is directly related to the extent and nature of the wound itself; therefore, there are 3 intentions of wound healing. 1ST INTENTION (PRIMARY INTENTION): There is neither infection nor a larger tissue defect. Heals rapidly with minimal scarring. Ideal healing. 2ND INTENTION (SECONDARY): There is a loss of tissue; edges cannot be approximated. Healing may be delayed by infection. Granulation tissue fills gap leading to weak, irregular scar. 3RD INTENTION (LEAST DESIRED): Wound has not been closed for the purpose of walling off an area of gross infection. Wound must be debrided. 27  COMPLICATIONS OF WOUND HEALING 1. Infection: Suppurating wound: 2. Hemorrhage: 3. Hematoma: 4. Dehiscence: 5. Evisceration: 6. Scar formation: a. Keloid: b. Contractures: 7. Fistula: 8. Incisional hernia: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WOUND HEALING 1. Host's resistance a. Nutritional status: b. Age: c. Disease: d. Medications: 2. Environment and location of wound: 3. Presence or absence of bacteria: 28