Psychology Cram Packet - Thompson - Updated 2024/2025 PDF

Vocab unique to experiments: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: “Unit Zero” – Research o Placebo Effect: any observed effect on a establishes significance (meaningfulness) Design behv. That is...

Vocab unique to experiments: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: “Unit Zero” – Research o Placebo Effect: any observed effect on a establishes significance (meaningfulness) Design behv. That is “caused” by the placebo o STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = Basic Vocabulary: (shows effectiveness of exp. Treatment). results not due to chance, Hypothesis – tentative explanation – must Usually fixed w/ blinded studies exp.manipulation caused the be FALSIFIABLE – able to be supported o Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the difference in means or rejected participant or the experimenter are aware  p than 1. o Measures of Central Tendency: increases generalizability o Stronger relationships = tighter clusters  Mean: Average (use in on graph Representative Sample: Sample mimics normal distribution) the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age)  Median: Middle # (use in Convenience Sample: select participants skewed distribution) on availability – less representative and  Mode: occurs most often less generalizability this way Bimodal – has two Sampling bias – sample isn’t modes – usually representative, due to conv. sampling indicates good bad EXPERIMENTS: purposefully Cultural norms – behvs of a particular scores manipulate variables to determine cause group can influence research results /effect Experimenter bias / Participant bias: Skews – created by Adv: only type that establishes cause and experimenter/participant expectations outlers effect Disadv: can be unethical, too artificial influences the outcome o Neg skew = mean is o Independent Variable: purposefully Cognitive bias– bias in thinking/judgment to the left (neg side), altered by researcher to look for effect o Confirmation bias – find info that mode is to the right  Experimental Group: received the supports our preexisting beliefs o Pos skew = mean is to treatment (part of the IV); can have o Hindsight bias – “I knew it all along” the right multiple exp, groups o Overconfidence – overestimate our Measure of variation  Control Group: placebo, baseline knowledge / abilities Range – distance bw o Hawthorne effect – ppl change (part of the IV); can only have 1 smallest and biggest # o Dependent Variable: measured variable behavior when watched Standard deviation – avg. amount the Research needs peer review and adequate (is DEPENDENT on the independent scores are spread from the mean variable) sample sizes (bigger # = more spread)  PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: Biological Basis Pillar Neurons Fire w/ an Action Potential: ions move across membrane sends an o Depressants: Decrease NS activity *NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action electrical charge down the axon (alcohol) potential, NS = nervous system o Resting potential: neuron maintains a o Stimulants: Increase NS activity -70mv charge when not doing (caffeine & cocaine) HEREDITY VS ENVIRONMENT anything o Hallucinogens: hallucinations and Evolutionary psycs – study how natural o Depolarization: charge of neuron altered perceptions (Marijuana) selection influences behavior briefly switches from neg to pos. – o Opioids: relieve pain (endorphin Heredity (nature) = how genes influence triggers the AP agonists) (heroin) your behavior o Threshold of depolarization: stimulus o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to Environment (nurture) = how outside strength must reach this point to start achieve the same effects situations influence your behavior the AP o Addiction: must have it to avoid (school) o All or nothing principle: stimulus withdrawal symptoms NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER must trigger o Withdrawal: symptoms associated IS BOTH the AP past with sudden stoppage o Twin / Adoption Studies: its threshold, THE BRAIN o Genetics: identical twin will have a higher but does not o Cerebellum – movement, balance, percentage of also developing a disease increase the coordination, procedural memory o Environment: identical twins raised in intensity or (walking a tightrope balancing a bell) different environments show differences speed of the o Brainstem / Medulla – vital organs (HR, response BP, breathing) NERVOUS SYSTEM (flush the o Reticular activating system: alertness, CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord toilet) arousal, sleep, eye movement PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS – o Refractory period: neuron must rest o Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the relays to Central NS and reset before it can send another brain – higher order thought processes o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement, has AP (toilet resets) – includes limbic system, lobes, corpus sensory and motor neurons NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT): callosum o Autonomic NS: Involuntary organs Chemicals released in synaptic gap, o Limbic System (heart, lungs, etc) – contains the: received by neurons. Classified as  Amygdala: emotions, fear  Sympathetic NS: fight/flight excitatory (increase APs in other neurons)  Hippocampus: episodic and semantic (generally activates – exception or inhibitory (decrease APs) memory (if you saw a hippo on digestion) o GABA: Major inhibitory NT campus you’d remember it!)  Parasympathetic NS: rest / digest o Glutamate: Major excitatory NT  Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure (generally inhibits - exception (glutes excite you!) center, eating behaviors – link to digestion) o Dopamine: Reward (short term) & endocrine system, homeostasis NEURON AND NEURAL FIRING fine movement – in hypothalamus,  Thalamus: relay center for all but assoc. w/ addiction smell o Serotonin: Moods (long-term),  Pituitary gland: talks w/ endocrine sys emotion, sleep –in amygdala, too and hypothalamus – release hormones little assoc. w/ depression o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement –in hippocampus, assoc. w/ Alzheimer’s o Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS - too little assoc. w/ depression o Endorphins: decrease pain NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Substance P: pain regulation o Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs (abnormality increases pain and o Axon: AP travels down this inflammation) o Occipital Lobe: vision o Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down HORMONES: if not in the nervous o Frontal Lobe: decision making, axon, protects axon system, it’s a hormone planning, judgment, movement, o Synapse: gap b/w neurons o Oxytocin: love, bonding, childbirth, personality, language, executive SENSORY neurons – receive sense lactation function – includes the: signals from environ.–send signal to brain o Adrenaline: fight/flight Prefrontal cortex: front of frontal MOTOR neurons – signals to move – o Leptin: makes you full (stops hunger) lobe – executive function send signals from brain o Ghrelin: makes you hungry (turns you Motor Cortex: back of frontal lobe - Interneurons – cells in spinal cord /brain into a gremlin) map of our motor receptors – responsible for reflex arc o Melatonin: sleep controls skeletal movement o Reflex arc – important stimuli skips Agonist: drug that mimics a NT o Parietal Lobe: sensations and touch – the brain and routes through the Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT controls association areas – incudes: spinal cord for immediate reactions Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up Somatosensory Cortex: map of our (hand on a hot flame) into the sending neuron.(antidepressants touch receptors GLIA – support cells – give nutrients and cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) Temporal Lobe: hearing and face clean up around neurons – treatment for depression recognition, language  o Association areas:receive input from SLEEP SENSATION multiple areas / lobes to integrate info Consciousness – awareness of cognitive Intro Vocab o Left hemisphere only – damage to these processes (asleep or awake?) Sensation – receive stimulus energy results in aphasia (damaged speech) Circadian Rhythms: 24ish hour from environment  Broca’s Area: Inability to produce biological clock of Body temp & sleep Transduction – convert that info into speech (Broca – Broken speech) o Disrupting it makes your internal APs  Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend clock get out of sync (jet lag and Perception – brain interprets the info speech (Wernicke’s what?) shift work do this) Absolute Threshold: detection of signal o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that 50% of time (is it there) connects the 2 hemispheres – Just noticeable difference: can tell sometimes severed in patients the difference b/w a stronger and weaker with severe seizures – leads to stimulus or two similar things (coke vs “split-brain patients” pepsi, did it get stronger?)  Split-brain experiments: WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli must  Image shown to R eye differ by a constant minimum processed in L hemi – patient proportion.(the stronger thing, the more can say what they saw; image shown you have to add to tell the difference) to L eye processed in R hemi, can’t Beta Waves: awake (you betta be Synesthesia: “disorder” where your say what was seen awake for the exam) senses blend (see sounds, etc) Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy Sensory Adaptation: diminished NREM (non REM) stages- sensitivity as a result of constant NREM 1: light sleep, has stimulation (ex. nose blindness)– sensory hypnagogic sensations (falling receptors respond less (get tired) feeling) VISUAL SYSTEM: NREM 2: bursts of sleep spindles Lens – focuses light on retina BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain changes NREM 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep Retina – contains photoreceptors via damage and through experience Rapid Eye Movement (REM): (rods/cones/ ganglion cells) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends dreaming, cognitive processing Fovea–area of best vision(cones here) hormones throughout the body Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, Rods – black/white, dark adaptation; o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by REM occurs inb/w each cycle. way more rods than cones; located along hypothalamus. release growth hormones REM lasts longer throughout sides of retina BRAIN RESEARCH: the night, deep sleep decreases Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue) o EEG: shows broad brain activity – not REM is “paradoxical” bc your (only in the fovea) specific – electrical output HR and brain is active – but Ganglion cells – create optic nerve o fMRI: show brain activity in specific your body is relaxed (opponent process theory happens here) regions, measures oxygen REM Rebound: after sleep disruptions Blind spot – occurs where the optic o Lesion – destruction of brain tissue and/or lack of REM sleep you’ll have nerve leaves the eye – more / more intense REM sleep DISEASES & DISORDERS TO KNOW DREAM THEORIES: Multiple sclerosis: destruction of myelin Activation Synthesis: Brain produces sheath, disrupts APs, causes impaired random bursts of energy – stimulating mobility, paralysis, pain lodged memories in limbic sys & brain Myasthenia gravis: acetylcholine blocked, stem. Dreams start random then develop disrupts APs, causes poor motor control meaning. Its Neural theory. and paralysis Consolidation dream theory: brain is Blindsight: caused by lesions to primary combining and processing memories for VISUAL SYSTEM VOCAB: visual cortex, ppl can “see” ie catch a storage Accommodation :lens changes ball etc despite being blind – evidence WHY IS SLEEP NECESSARY curvature to focus images on retina for association areas Consolidation – storage of memories Nearsightedness- better vision near Prosopagnosia: face blindness – damage Restoration – helps regenerate the Farsightedness – better vision far to occipital and/or temporal lobe immune system and restore energy THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: Broca’s aphasia – damage to Broca’s area SLEEP DISORDERS Trichromatic – three cones for – stuttered speech o Insomnia: Inability to fall / stay asleep receiving color Wernicke’s aphasia – damage to (due to stress/anxiety)  Blue – short waves Wernicke’s – jumbled speech o Somnambulism (sleep walking) – happens  Green – medium waves Phantom limb pain – pain from a limb during stage 3 - NOT during REM  Red – long waves that no longer is there (amputated) – o Narcolepsy: fall into REM out of nowhere Opponent Process – complementary caused by brain plasticity – treated w/ stimulants colors are processed in ganglion cells – Epilepsy – seizures – too much / little o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing while asleep explains why we see an after image Glutamate / GABA (due to obesity usually)  Red/green Alzheimer’s – destruction of o REM behavior disorder: malfunction of  Blue/yellow acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory mechanism that paralyze you during REM  Black/white Key word loss  Color deficiency: Taste (gustation): 6 taste receptors: Selective attention: focus on one thing Damage to, or missing - cones or bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami and block out other things – can result in: ganglion cells (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily) Inattentional Blindness: failure to  Red/green is most common  Tongue, mouth, and brain process notice something added b/c you’re so  Dichromatism – missing 1 cone taste focused on another task (gorilla video)  Monochromatism – only have rods  Density of taste receptors makes ppl Change Blindness: fail to notice a AUDITORY SYSTEM: super tasters, medium tasters, or change in the scene (curtain changes Properties of Sound: nontasters color) Wavelength – distance bw peaks - pitch  Sensory interaction creates taste – wo Cocktail party effect: notice your  Long waves = low pitch smell taste isn’t as strong or is absent name across the room when its  Narrow waves = high pitch Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does spoken, when you weren’t previously Amplitude – height of wave – loudness NOT route through the thalamus paying attention  Short waves = soft  Pheromones produce chemical BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how  Tall waves = loud signals w/in a species for attraction both eyes make up a 3D image) Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly Cognition Pillar different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth PERCEPTION Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking Top-Down Processing: Whole idea inward) as objects draw nearer (prior expectations)  smaller parts MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES (how THEORIES OF HEARING: all occur (painting w/ faces) we form a 3D image from a 2D image) in the cochlea Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts Interposition: Place theory – location where hair cells (sensory info)  Whole idea (dog of overlapping bends determines sound (high pitches) bunch of dots) images appear Frequency theory – rate at which action Schemas: preexisting mental concept of closer potentials are sent determines sound how something should look (like a Relative Size: (low pitches) restaurant) 2 objects that Volley theory – groups of neurons fire Perceptual Set: tendency to see are usually similar in size, the smaller APs out of sync something as part of a group – speeds up one is further away signal processing Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks) GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is Relative Clarity: greater than the sum of its parts hazy objects Gestalt Principles: appear further away  Figure/ground: organize information Texture Gradient: coarser objects=closer into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground) THINKING & PROBLEM SOLVING  Closure: mentally fill in gaps Other Hearing Stuff: Concepts: mental categories used to group  Proximity: group things together that  Sound localization –which ear gets objects, events, characteristics appear near each other the waves first tells location of sound Prototypes: all instances of a concept  Similarity: group things together  Conduction deafness – damage to are compared to an ideal example based off of looks bones of ear and ear drum cause Algorithms: step by step strategies that hearing loss guarantee a solution (formula)  Sensorineural – damge to cochlea, Heuristics: short cut strategy hairs in cochlea, or nerve – usually o Representative Heuristic: make due to old age and loud noise judgment based on your experience Figure / Ground OTHER SENSES: (like a stereotype) – assume someone Vestibular: Sense of balance must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet (semicircular canals in the inner ear) o Availability heuristic: make a judgement based on the first thing that Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & pops in your head (assume planes are movement wo looking dangerous b/c crash in the news) Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting “gate” to control how much pain is Constancies: recognize that objects do upon) the way you think experience. Pain is both mental and not physically change despite changes in Mental Set - keep using one strategy to physical sensory input (size, shape, brightness) solve a problem – cannot think outside the “Hot”: activation of warm and cold Apparent Movement: objects can appear box receptors moving when they aren’t (flip books, blinking lights)  Functional Fixedness: can only see one Forgetting curve: recall decreases Other odd types of memory (common) use for an item– cannot think rapidly at Prospective memory – remembering outside of the box first, then you need to do something (pick up Sunk Cost fallacy – continue something reaches a milk) bc you’re already invested (might as well plateau Autobiographical memory: finish it now…) – when stopping would be after which memory for your personal history – more beneficial little more combo of episodic and semantic Gambler’s Fallacy – believe something is is forgotten o Superior autobiographical – more likely to happen bc its “due” – the Distributed practice (spacing effect) – rare condition – ppl have extra dice have no memory review a little every night (resets detailed memories Divergent thinking: ability to think about forgetting curve ) Memory organization many different things at once (Creative) – Massed practice – cramming o Hierarchies: memory is stored hindered by func. fixedness Testing effect – quizzing over material according to a clusters of related info Convergent thinking: limits creativity – periodically o Categorically – stored in categories one answer o Semantic networks: webs of semi- Executive functioning: generating, STORAGE: Retaining info over time related info organizing, planning, carrying out goal Multi-Store Model – Sensory memory,  Tip of the tongue phenomenon – directed behvs short term memory, long term memory can’t remember the name of model something bs you’re stuck MEMORY elsewhere in your semantic ENCODING: Getting info into memory network Automatic encoding – requires no effort o Schemas –frameworks that organize (what did you have for breakfast?) info Effortful encoding–requires work Assimilation: incorporate new info (school) Sensory Memory – stores all incoming into existing schema Cat is a dog stimuli that you receive (first you have b/c 4 legs. Levels (depth) of Processing: the more to a pay attention) Accommodation: adjust existing emphasis on MEANING the deeper the o Iconic Memory – visual memory, schemas to incorporate new processing, and the better remembered lasts 0.3 seconds information Cat and dogs = o Structural encoding (shallow) – o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, different. emphasis on physical structural lasts 2-3 seconds Memory storage o Phonemic encoding (intermediate)– emphasis on what words sound like Short Term Memory – info passes Acetylcholine neurons in the o Semantic encoding (deep) = emphasis on from sensory memory to STM – lasts hippocampus for episodic and semantic meaning of the words 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items Memories before age 3 are unreliable o Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating (infantile amnesia) – hippocampus still Elaborative Rehearsal – strategies to the info) resets the clock forming enhance encoding like below: o Imagery – attaching images to Long term memory – lasts a life time Cerebellum for implicit / procedural information makes it easier to remember o Explicit – require conscious effort: memories o Dual encoding – using multiple  Episodic: events Amygdala for emotional memories methods of processing to remember  Semantic: facts Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval (photo + words) o Implicit- automatic, no effort needed: Long-term potentiation: neural basis of o Chunking – break info into smaller  Classical conditioning memory – connections are strengthened units to aid in memory (like a phone #)  Priming: info that is seen earlier over time with repeated stimulation (more o Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us “primes” you to remember firing of neurons) remember info easier something later on  Memory consolidation – memories are  Acronyms – using letter to  Procedural: skills (muscle strengthened and made more stable with remember something (PEMDAS) memory) time  Method of loci – using locations to Working Memory Model splits STM remember a list of items in order into 2 – visual spatial memory (from RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage Context dependent memory – where you iconic mem) and phonological loop Serial Position Effect: tendency to learn the info you best remember the info (from echoic mem). A “central remember the beginning (primacy effect) (scuba divers testing) executive” puts it together before and the end (recency effect) of the list best passing it to LTM State dependent memory – the physical o Primacy happens bc the info got state you were in when learning is the way moved to long term memory you should be when testing (study high, o Recency bc its still in your short term test high) Mood congruent memory – remember happy events when happy, sad when sad  Recall: remember what you’ve been told Psychometrics – field of psych & education Stereotype threat: feel at risk of w/o cues (essays) for creating tests conforming to the neg. stereotype about Recognition: remember what you’ve been Standardization: test is given using your group - influences your behaviors, told w/ cues (MCQ) (this one is better) consistent procedures and environments, cognitions Repressed memories: unconsciously and graded the same (SAT, AP exams) Stereotype lift – do better on a test when buried memories to defend the ego Tests Should be reliable: same results comparing self to other groups w/ neg (psychodynamic approach) over time (consistent) stereotypes Encoding failure: forget info b/c you  Split-half reliability: compare two FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the halves of the test the past 80 years – probably due to first place (which is the real penny)  Test-retest reliability: use the same education standards, healthcare Proactive interference test on 2 different occasions Fixed Mindset: belief intelligence is fixed OLD info blocks new info Tests Should be valid: test is accurate – from birth – leads to less effort measures what it is intended to Growth mindset: belief you can develop Retroactive interference  Construct validity: test measures what abilities through work and determination – NEW info blocks old info you want it to (an IQ test actually leads to more effort Constructive memory – the way we measures IQ) update memories w/ new memories,  Predictive validity: test is able to associations, feelings – memory is accurately predict a trait (high math Development and unreliable scores predicts good engineer) Learning Pillar Source Amnesia: forget who told you, Standardized tests establish a normal where you heard it distribution DEVELOPMENT “3 thematic issues” in Dev. Psych: Misinformation effect: distortion of Standard dev are used to compare scores. 1. Nature / Nurture (genes or environment) memory by suggestion or misinformation Standard deviation measures how much 2. Continuous / Discontinuous (gradual dev (lost in the mall, Disney land) the scores vary from the mean. Percentages over time or dev. In stage) Framing – the way a question is framed below NEVER change. 3. Stability / Change (traits persist, impacts how info is recalled / perceived unchanging or traits change as we age) (how fast were the cars going when they o CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: ppl of smashed) different ages at the same point in time Imagination Inflation: ppl are more o Adv: inexpensive & quick confident an event happened after o Disadv: can be differences due to imagining it (even though it didn’t happen) generational gap Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves o LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) ppl over time Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves o Adv: eliminates groups (cohort) backwards (forget old info) differences, lots of detail Types of Tests: o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high INTELLIGENCE & ACHIEVEMENT drop out rates Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn Intelligence theories are split: a new skill (ASVAB) Single form of intelligence (g factor) - PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Achievement: tests what you know(AP) general intelligence (g) underlies all Prenatal Development: Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). o Teratogens: external agents that can Nature vs Nurture Influence on IQ: If you’re smart in one area you’re smart in cause abnormal prenatal development other areas too Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological (alcohol, drugs, etc) Multiple intelligences – intelligence has o Illness, mutations, hormones, and parents lots of types, not just math/language. Can environment can impact prenatal dev be high/low in areas Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ Physical Development: First IQ Test: used a formula and is where o Maturation: natural course of the traditional value of “IQ” comes from Personal and sociocultural biases impact interpretation of results development, occurs no matter what Poverty and education inequalities neg. (walking) impact scores o Gross movement: large muscles, strength and coordination (walking) – Chronological age = actual age Eugenics – study of how to “improve” develops first Mental age = tested age compared to the gene pool by discouraging o Fine movement: small muscles, other of that age (sterilizing or otherwise) individuals precision and controlled (writing) 100 is average, SD = 15 from reproducing o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born w/ Use for IQ scores /tests today: educational Culture fair tests – IQ tests have been - that go away w/ time services, diagnostic testing for learning used to refuse / limit access to jobs,  Rooting – turning of face towards a disabilities, GT identification military, education, and immigration finger when touched on the cheek (food Need to focus on non-language skills response & minimize cultural specific  Other reflexes include - sucking, questions swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, Babinski (toes spread when foot touched)  o Eyes have the most limited Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT development, takes till 1 year operational thinking, classification, and o Temperament: patterns of emotional  Visual can think logical in concrete context reactions in babies – impacts attachment cliff: Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use o Easy, difficult, slow to warm up babies abstract and idealist thoughts, o “Monkey experiments”: discovered that have to hypothetical-deductive reasoning contact comfort is more important than learn Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages too feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth depth discrete, dev. differs b/w kids mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation perception, so they will cross a “cliff” VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive couldn’t socialize Critical period (sensitive period) – development is a social process too, need to o Attachment: strange situation paradigm limited time where something HAS to be interact w/ others (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, developed or it won’t happen (language o Zone of Proximal Development: gap then reunited w/ mom – determines your for humans) b/w what a child can do on their own and attachment style o Imprinting: birds believe the first w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) o Utilizes idea of separation anxiety: during thing they see after hatching is mom late sensorimotor stage kids are fearful of PUBERTY! (sexual maturation bc of ppl they don’t know or being left alone hormones) o Secure attachment (60% of infants): o Primary sex characteristics: necessary upset when mom leaves, easily calmed structures for reproduction (ovaries, on return. Tend to be more stable adults testicles, vagina, penis) o Avoidant insecure (20% infants):  Menarche – 1st period actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when  Spermarche – first release of sperm she leaves – adults have distant o Secondary sex characteristics: relationships and fail to communicate nonreproductive characteristics that dev o Anxious insecure (10% infants): during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening o Crystallized intelligence: fact and prior actively avoids mom, freaks out when of voice, body hair) learning / experiences – increases w/ age she leaves – jealous relationships and o Adolescent growth spurt – rapid skeletal o Fluid intelligence: ability to learn new clingy and muscular dev. things, reaction times, abstract thinking & o Disorganized insecure(5%): confused, o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully quick problem solving – decreases w/ age fearful, dazed – result of abuse developed till 25) o Dementia: loss of cognitive function – o Parenting styles- influenced by culture o Adulthood – the following level off results in emotional and behavioral o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my and then decline: changes – ex. Alzheimer’s way or the highway” – kids lack  Mobility, flexibility, reaction time, initiative in college, low self-esteem visual / auditory acuity, fertility LANGUAGE o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules Language: shared system of symbols that – kids lack initiative in college – high COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT operate by rules and is infinite self-esteem JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – o Schemas –frameworks that organize info sound in chat) kids become socially competent and Assimilation: incorporate new info into Morpheme: smallest unit that caries reliable – best type - high self-esteem existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs. meaning (-ed means past tense) and initiative Accommodation: adjust existing Grammar: rules in a language that enable Peer relationships w/ time schemas to incorporate new information us to communicate o Children engage w/ play Cat and dogs = different. Semantics: set of rules by which we derive  Parallel play – play side by side w/o Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: meaning (adding –ed makes something past interacting – turns into pretend play focused on exploring their world tense) o Adolescents rely on peers o Lack (and gain) Object Permanence: Syntax: rules for combining words into  Imaginary audience: believe others Objects when removed from field of view sentences (white house vs casa blanca) are constantly watching them (related are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo) Cooing stage: produces vowels sounds to egocentrism) Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use Babbling stage: start to create phonemes w/  Turns into Personal fable – belief you pretend play and mental symbols constants are special / unique / invincible o Lack Conservation: recognize that One-word stage: used to try and o Adulthood – culture impacts when substances remain the same despite communicate wants major life events should occur – some changes in shape, length, or position (girls Telegraphic speech (two word stage): allow a transition bw adolescence and with juice in glasses) further communication adulthood o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse  Overregularization: grammar mistake-  Social clock – shared (cultural) operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) children over use certain morphemes (I go- expectation of age-appropriate o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish ed to the park) behavior (when to get married, have one’s own perspective from another’s – kids, etc) think everyone sees what they see o Lack (and start developing) theory of o Gender roles: expected behaviors mind: people’s beliefs, intentions, (norms) for men/women due to cultural emotions are their own influence o Use animism: believe artificial objects have thoughts / feelings o ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : o ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY: o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar each stage represents a crisis that must be o Microsystem – immediate environment w/ sounding bell) resolved, results in competence or weakness daily interaction (family, friends, teachers) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS (only o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if o Mesosystem – relationships bw drool to that one bell, no others) needs are met infants dev basic trust microsystem (interaction bw parents and o Higher order conditioning: when the o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): teachers / school) original CS is paired with 2nd thing – and learn to exercise their will (I WANT TO o Exosystem – environment you’re not becomes a new CS (drool to squeaky DO IT – pours milk) directly a part of that still impacts you cabinet / can opener) o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to (government policies, parent’s job) O Conditioned taste aversion (one-trial initiate tasks and carry out plans, also be o Macrosystem – societal and cultural learning)- Innate predispositions can allow creative (WHY kid) influences (customs, norms, traditions) classical conditioning to occur in one trial o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to o Chronosystem – life stage and historical (food poisoning) – due to biological puberty): learn what you’re good or events (economic recession, environmental preparedness – predisposed to react to accomplished at (school / sports success) changes) dangerous biological threats o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence O Habituation – get used to a regular thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing stimulus and stop responding (startle less to roles and forming an identity a loud noise w/ time) o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form o Emotional conditioning – emotions can be close relationships and gain capacity for conditioned in humans (little Albert love experiment) lead to behavioral treatments o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): for fear (counterconditioning) discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work OPERANT CONDITIONING: explains o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): voluntary behv resulting from reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or consequences failure O LAW OF EFFECT Behaviors followed o MARCIA’S IDENTITY THEORY: by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice LEARNING to increase a behavior (gold star for Behaviorist perspective is focused on turning in HW) learning – (change in behv through O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away experience). Measures observable behv, something bad/annoying to increase a and usually ignores the mind o Diffusion: no commitment, no exploration, behavior (put on seatbelt to take away no idea who they are (no idea of a major – annoying car signal) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: explains not even thinking on it) O Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying involuntary behvs and emotions o Foreclosure: premature commitment w/ (food and water) o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes no exploration (I’ll be a lawyer bc my O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else response w/o needing to be learned (food) parents say so) (stickers, high-fives) o Unconditioned Response (UCR): response o Moratorium: actively seeking an identity, O Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) no commitment though (trying lots of be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): thing that clubs to see what sticks) or money) now brings about a response (bell) o Identity Achievement: committed sense O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to o Conditioned Response (CR): response of self, desire to accomplish and contribute decrease a behavior (spanking) after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) (picked a major after careful consideration) O Neg. Punishment: Take away something o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS good to decrease a behavior (take away car must be presented.5-1 sec BEFORE the US keys) o Acquisition: process of learning the O Punishment temporarily changes behv., response pairing doesn’t tell you what to do – ineffective o Extinction: previously conditioned O Operant conditioning extinguishes like response dies out over time classical conditioning o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of O Shaping: use successive approximations to time the CR comes back out of nowhere train behavior (reward closer and closer desired behaviors to teach a response – rat basketball) O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: o Adverse Childhood Experiences Receive reward for every response (ACEs): stressful / traumatic events during O Partial Reinforcement schedule: vary childhood – impact relationships and how often the response is given – health strengthens responses and takes longer to o Abuse, divorce, mental illness extinguish  O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X Attitude formation and change: number of response (every 10 envelopes Social and Stereotype: generalized concept about a stuffed get $$) Personality Pillar group (a label) O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X Reduces cognitive load (mental effort) SOCIAL PSYCH – how we think about, amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get when making decisions influence, and relate to others a paycheck) Usually the basis of prejudice and O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded discrimination Attributions and Perceptions - after a random number of responses (slot Prejudice: neg. reaction towards a machine Attributions – how ppl explain behv & mental processes of themselves & others person/group w/o any advance experience O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded w/ that group (a belief / emotion) after a random amount of time has o Dispositional attribution: person’s internal qualities –personality Discrimination: different treatment of a passed (BeReal app) person/ group than how you would treat O Variable schedules are most resistant to o Situational attribution: external circumstances others (a behavior) extinction (how long will keep playing a Implicit attitudes: unconscious bias –leads to slot machine Attribution theory: we explain behaviors by crediting the situation or the Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our before you think person’s internal disposition (personality) own group its broken?) Fundamental attribution error: Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your O Ratio schedules Tendency to blame a person’s own group as more important than lead to the disposition (personality) and not others highest response consider the situation (that guy cut me Outgroup homogeneity bias: rates (bc you are off b/c he’s a jerk – not that his wife perception that out-group members are in control of could be in labor) similar, while the in-group members your reward) Actor-observer bias: when its others – are diverse O Learned Helplessness – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome blame the person, when its you, blame Just-world phenomenon: tendency for so you just give up (word scrambles, the situation ppl to believe that the world is just and depression models) Self-serving bias: self only – our therefore ppl get what they deserve o Instinctive drift – can only teach successes are bc we’re awesome, our (homeless ppl) animals behvs they already do, also will failures are someone else’s fault Belief perseverance – stick to your return to original behvs w/ time original belief even when given evidence o Superstitious behaviors – operantly to disprove it conditioned through partial Cognitive dissonance - two opposing reinforcement & coincidence – pigeons thoughts conflict w/ each other, causing hopping on one foot to get food discomfort (dissonance), which makes us find ways to justify the situation (cult that MISC LEARNING TYPES was going to be abducted by aliens, SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY – smokers) learning through observation Modeling Behaviors: Children model Social Situations Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that Social norms – define expectations & (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you to demonstrate. The more similar the model roles for individuals and social situations all to pass, you know this, you study – Social influence theory – ppls thoughts is the better you learn. fulfilling my prophecy) Vicarious conditioning: form of and actions are influenced by others Social comparison: we evaluate ourselves Normative social influence: we observational learning, watch another get a based on comparisons to society and social consequence and learn - don’t do that! conform to gain approval or to not stand circles out from the group (be part of the norm) O Latent learning– learning is hidden until Upward comparison – compare to ppl useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way Informational social influence: we you think are better then you (I want to be conform to others b/c we think their through, performance improved like them) O Create Cognitive maps – mental opinions must be right (change answers Downard comparison – compare to to math hw) representation of an area, allows navigation someone you think is worse off than you Elaboration likelihood model – 2 ways to if blocked (firefighters taught this) (at least I don’t have it as bad as them) persuade O Insight learning– some learning is through Relative deprivation – judge what we Central route to persuasion: change simple intuition (chimps with crates to get are lacking relative to others people’s attitudes through logical bananas) – aha! moment Explanatory Style: how ppl explain good arguments and explanations. Leads to and bad events in their lives and others – long term behavior change either optimistic (pos) or pessimistic (neg) o Peripheral route to persuasion: change External locus of control: chance / outside people’s attitudes through incidental cues forces control your fate (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Can also Internal locus: control your own fate use emotional appeals. Leads to Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to temporary behavior changes. Use the: novel stimuli increases liking of them (the  Halo effect – overall impression of more time you spend around something the a person / thing is influenced by a more you like it) single pos. trait or characteristics  Foot in the door phenomenon: complying Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness Displacement: take feelings out on w/ a small request then leads to going along and self-restraint occurring in group something else (can’t tell at teacher, go w/ a larger request (can I have $5? Yes. situations that encourage anonymity (mob home and yell at the dog) Now can I have $25?) mentality) Projection: attribute personal shortcomings Door in the face phenomenon: a large Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group & faults on to others (man who wants to request is turned down, when then leads you to exert less effort when pooling their effort have an affair accuses his wife of one) to be more likely to comply w/ a small together (tug of war) Reaction formation: transform request (can I have $100? Heck no! How Social facilitation: perform better on unacceptable motive into his opposite about $20? Okay) simple or well learned tasks in the presence (insecure about masculinity becomes extra Conformity: of others aggressive) change in a False-consensus effect: we overestimate Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse person’s behv to the degree to which everyone else thinks / w/ a socially acceptable one (person who more closely acts the way we do likes fighting becomes professional match the group Superordinate goals: two or more groups kickboxer) classic experiment – showed lines of work together to achieve a common goal, How do we “test” this personality approach? different lengths, confederates gave wrong creates cohesiveness o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli shown answers to see if others would go along w/ Social trap: ppl put their own needs before to “reveal your unconscious” – inkblots and it – factors influence conformity: the group needs, results in bad outcome thematic apperception tests. Highly 1. Person is insecure (choose 5 or 15 demo) subjective, not considered reliability or 2. Group has 3 or more ppl Industrial / Organizational Psych: psych valid 3. Group is unanimous of work – best practices, relationships in the 4. Person admires group workplace or w/ company, how you feel Trait explanation: 5. Person has no prior commitment to about job (burnout) Traits: enduring personality characteristics, a response Altruism (prosocial behavior): unselfish people can be described by these – have 6. Others observe their behavior interest in helping other ppl – happens bs of: strong or weak tendencies. They are stable, 7. Cultural expectations (collectivistic) o Social reciprocity norm: we give so we genetic, and predict other attributes. Obedience: complying w/ an order or can get (help me and I’ll help you) BIG FIVE personality : (acronym command - classic experiment: participants o Social responsibility norm: act in ways OCEAN) You vary on each of these were to “teach” another individual using that benefit the community (moral sense o Openness : high levels = imaginative, shocks. ~65% of participants would of good) independent, like variety; low = not open administer lethal shocks to another person o Gain social approval to change simply b/c they were told - factors that STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT o Conscientiousness: high levels = influence obedience: (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” organized, careful, disciplined; low = 1. Proximity of authority figure where individuals were assigned to be disorganized and messy 2. Legitimacy or prestige of the figure guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on o Extraversion: high levels = sociable, likes 3. Distance from the victim their roles and went too far. Highly being center of attention, meeting new ppl 4. Role models for defiance unethical - (opposite is introversion: shy, timid, Culture influences conformity and reserved) obedience: PERSONALITY o Agreeableness: high levels = soft o Collectivistic: encourages social and hearted, trusting, helpful; low levels = group ties (more conformity / obedience) Psychodynamic explanation: personality is suspicious, not a team player o Individualistic: Encourages individuality largely unconscious, and shaped from early o Neuroticism (emotional stability): high (less conform / obedience) childhood experiences levels = mood swings, easy to stress; low Group polarization: the more time spent id: our hidden true wants and desires (devil = emotional stable, handles stress w/ a group on your shoulder) How do we “test” this personality approach? the stronger superego: our moral conscious (angel on Personality inventories – special name for a their your shoulder) test that uses factor analysis: statistical thoughts / ego: part of the mind / personality that deals procedure used to identify similar opinions will w/ every day reality – what ppl see – components become mediates bw the id and super ego (its you!) (must have Defense mechanisms – egos attempt to Humanistic explanation: same protect your from threats Emphasized personal growth and free will. opinion Repression: push memories back into the Self-actualization: fulfilling your full already) potential as person – self-actualized ppl are unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) self aware, caring, spontaneous, open, group leads to everyone going along w/ the Regression: go into an earlier development secure same thinking, ignoring other possibilities period in the face of stress (during exam Emphasis on unconditional positive regard: or bad ideas week you start to suck your thumb) attitude of acceptance regardless of Bystander effect (diffusion of Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality circumstances responsibility): the more ppl around the (refuse to believe you have cancer) less likely we are to help someone in need Rationalization: justify something (Kitty Genovese) happening (don’t get into your college – justify it was a crap college anyway)  Social-cognitive explanation: AROUSAL THEORY: sometimes we’re Biological Explanation for the difference in Behavior is a complex interaction of inner driven to increase arousal through curiosity, current theories - process and environmental influence – experimentation, thrill seeking – 2 Some stimuli are routed directly to the which influences personality associated theories: amygdala (fast route – simultaneous Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, o YERKES DODSON LAW): humans processing) (gut reaction to a cockroach) – expectations, and goals seek optimum levels of arousal –easier some RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks stimuli interaction of behavior, cognitions, and need less. Best is moderate levels have to environment make up you. be {Joe is shy which thought makes him about anxious in social first and situations hence go (personal factor) – to the frontal lobe (long route – label he just moved to a before) (first date jitters) new school Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced (environment) – so he doesn’t talk to others to smile will make you happier (cartoon much during lunch and bw classes (behavior). study with pen in mouth) – supports physio These factors reinforce each other.} exp. Before the label – replication of this is Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, so mixed you ensure you do through actions - this Broaden and build theory: everyday pos. influences your - emotions broaden awareness, which builds o Self-concept – how you view yourself in skills and resilience over time, leading to relation to others – which influences your better well-being. triangle and self-efficacy o SENSATION SEEKING THEORY: need a varied amount of novel (new) MOTIVATION experiences to be happy, so we seek it out Theories: – 4 types: INSTINCT THEORY: innate, fixed  Experience seeking: (desire to try new patterns in response to stimuli (nest things) building, mating) (explains animal  Thrill / adventure seeking: attraction to motivation) risky things (sky diving) DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need  Disinhibition: like things that result in creates aroused tension (drive) that loss of self-control (drugs, alcohol) Universal emotions: there are SIX motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by  Boredom susceptibility: inability to universal emotions (happiness, anger, homeostasis: equilibrium). “I’m hungry, I tolerate repetition (constantly seek sadness, surprise, disgust, feat) seen across seek out food to decrease my hunger” change) ALL cultures APPROACH CONFLICT THEORY Display Rules: social group or culture’s (Lewin) Hunger norms of how to express certain emotions o Approach approach conflict: win – win Biology of hunger: o Leptin – stop eating situation; conflict is which win you have to o Ghrelin – start eating Mental and Physical choose (you can eat out at ONE of your two favorite restaurants – you can only Psych of hunger: Health Pillar choose one though) o Environmental cues – time of day, social Health / Stress o Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose gatherings, etc Health Psych – addresses physical well- situation; outcome has positive and o Memory – amnesia patients don’t being and illness negative aspects – conflict is you having to remember when they ate, so they’ll eat again Stress – associated w/ hypertension, deal with it headaches, immune suppression o Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – o Distress – stress that is negative or lose; both outcomes are bad but you have Emotion damaging to choose one (clean your room or do your Historical theories focused on 2 things: o Eustress – stress that is positive or homework) o Physiological arousal (HR, blood pressure) motivating (graduation) SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: o The cognitive experience of an emotion  Some theories said these happen Tend and Befriend Theory of Stress: motivated intrinsically or extrinsically some ppl cope by tending their own needs / o Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation together, some said they’re linear others needs. Some seek connections – you do it b/c you like it Current theories add a cognitive label or (befriend) w/ ppl. (usually associated w/ o Extrinsic motivation: motivation to appraisal (we have to decide which emotion women) obtain a reward (trophy) we’re feeling) INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by  Some theories place the label before the external rewards (extrinsic motivation) arousal, some say its simultaneous / linear  Reason why polygraphs are unreliable  GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME: Interaction Models to Explain Disorders DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS three phases of a stress response Biopsychosocial – combines bio, psych, Major depressive disorder: extreme o Alarm: temp. shock, fight/flight/freeze and sociocultural factors sadness and despair, apathy towards life o Resistance: immune system enhanced, Diathesis – Stress: individual has a genetic Persistent depressive: long term “less coping predisposition, disease must be “turned-on” severe” depression o Exhaustion: body gives up, most likely to by environmental stimuli (like stress) BIPOLAR DISORDERS get sick Eclectic: most ppl use a more than one o Mania: heightened mood, risky behaviors, perspective fast talking, flights of ideas Bipolar I: manic episodes, usually full Defining abnormal behavior: depressive episodes o Based on level of dysfunction Bipolar II: hypomanic episodes, full o Is there perception of distress depressive episodes, o Deviation from social norms Causes of Depressive AND Bipolar Diagnosing abnormal behavior: Disorders diagnosing requires special training & Biology: lower levels of serotonin & Problem-focused coping: solving or doing evidence based diagnostic tools like: norepinephrine linked to depression, higher something to alter the course of stress (to-do o DSM: Published by APA. levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. list, time management, ask for help) o ICM: published by WHO Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin Emotion-focused coping: managing  Both contain: lists of behvs needed for studies also support this. emotions when stressed (meditation, diagnosis; codes for insurance coverage Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads exercise) (drug / alcohol use is negative) and stat tracking to depression  Diagnostic labels have positive and Behavioral: learned helplessness Positive Psychology negative consequences: Sociocultural: more common in women, Pos. Psych – researches factors leading to Pos: acceptance, connections, easier to LGBTQ, low SES better well-being, resilience, pos. emotions, find treatment Biopsychosocial model and Diathesis psych health Neg: cultural and societal stigmas and stress apply Gratitude – experiencing and expressing discrimination gratitude increases well-being (giving SCHIZOPHRENIA thanks, giving back) NEURODEVELOPMENTAL NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES (DID)! Exercising signature strengths / virtues DISORDERS: inappropriate behaviors for o Acute schizophrenia: severe episode(s) increases well-being