Study Guide Notes.docx

1. \#\#\# Cultural Development 2. \#\#\#\# China (Song Dynasty) - \*\*Golden Age - Economic, Cultural\*\*: The Song Dynasty is often referred to as a \"Golden Age\" in Chinese history due to its remarkable economic and cultural achievements. Economically, the Song D...

1. \#\#\# Cultural Development 2. \#\#\#\# China (Song Dynasty) - \*\*Golden Age - Economic, Cultural\*\*: The Song Dynasty is often referred to as a \"Golden Age\" in Chinese history due to its remarkable economic and cultural achievements. Economically, the Song Dynasty saw advancements in agriculture, such as the widespread use of fast-ripening rice, which led to population growth and urbanization. Culturally, this period was marked by significant developments in art, literature, and technology, including the invention of gunpowder and the printing press. - \*\*Neo-Confucianism\*\*: This was a revival of Confucian thought that incorporated elements of Buddhism and Daoism. It had a profound influence on Chinese society, emphasizing moral integrity and the importance of education. Neo-Confucianism also reinforced social hierarchies, including practices like foot-binding, which became a symbol of beauty and status, and filial piety, which stressed respect for one\'s parents and ancestors. 3. \#\#\#\# Hinduism - \*\*Dharma, Reincarnation, Karma\*\*: These are core concepts in Hinduism. Dharma refers to the moral and ethical duties of an individual. Reincarnation is the belief in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, while karma is the idea that one\'s actions in this life will determine their fate in future lives. - \*\*Bhakti Movement\*\*: This was a devotional movement that emphasized personal devotion to deities and was instrumental in the decline of Buddhism in India. It made Hinduism more accessible to the common people and focused on a personal connection with the divine. 4. \#\#\#\# House of Wisdom of Abbasid Dynasty in Baghdad The House of Wisdom was a major intellectual center during the Islamic Golden Age. Scholars from various cultures and religions came together to study and translate scientific and philosophical texts, contributing to advancements in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. 5. \#\#\#\# Buddhism - \*\*Theravada and Mahayana\*\*: These are two major branches of Buddhism. Theravada focuses on the teachings of the Buddha and the monastic life, while Mahayana is more diverse and includes the concept of Bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who delay their own nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment. 6. \#\#\#\# High Middle Ages - \*\*Renaissance\*\*: The High Middle Ages set the stage for the Renaissance, a period of renewed interest in art, science, and the classical knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome. This era saw the rise of universities and a focus on humanism. 7. \#\#\#\# Islam - \*\*Sunni vs. Shia\*\*: The split between Sunni and Shia Islam originated from a disagreement over the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad. This division has had lasting religious and political implications throughout the Islamic world. 8. \#\#\#\# Christianity - \*\*Great Schism\*\*: This was the division of Christianity into the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East in 1054. It was caused by theological, political, and cultural differences and remains a significant event in Christian history. 9. \*\*Tributary Relationships:\*\* One of the key forms of cultural interaction was the tributary system, particularly evident in the relationships between China and its neighboring regions like Korea and Vietnam. These regions were influenced by Chinese culture, politics, and religion, yet they also maintained their indigenous traditions. In Korea and Vietnam, the influence of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism was significant, but it often coexisted with local beliefs and practices. For instance, in Vietnam, religious syncretism led to the emergence of unique cultural expressions, such as the veneration of a female Buddha, which blended Buddhist and indigenous elements. 10. \*\*China and Its Neighbors:\*\* In Vietnam, the Chinese merit-based examination system for the bureaucracy was adopted, which helped to integrate Confucian ideals into Vietnamese governance. However, this did not completely erase local customs and traditions. Similarly, in Japan, while Buddhism was introduced from China, it coexisted with Shintoism, the indigenous religion, leading to a unique religious landscape. Vietnam also contributed to China through the introduction of Champa rice, a fast-growing variety that significantly boosted agricultural productivity in China, demonstrating a reciprocal exchange of ideas and resources. 11. \*\*Spread of Islam:\*\* The spread of Islam created a vast cultural and religious network known as Dar al-Islam, which extended into Africa, India, and even Europe. In Africa, the Bantu-speaking peoples of East Africa experienced cultural syncretism, blending Islamic influences with their own languages and traditions. In West Africa, Islam spread through trade and the influence of powerful leaders like Mansa Musa of Mali, who was known for his pilgrimage to Mecca and his role in promoting Islam. In Spain, under the rule of Abd al-Rahman III, there was a brief period of religious tolerance where Christians, Jews, and Muslims coexisted, particularly in cities like Cordoba. However, this period was followed by the Reconquista, which led to the persecution of Muslims and Jews. 12. \*\*Islam in India:\*\* In India, the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi marked significant interactions between Muslims and Hindus. While there were conflicts, there were also instances of cultural exchange, such as the influence of Buddhism on the caste system. The construction of the Borobudur temple in Java is an example of the spread of Buddhist architecture and ideas in Southeast Asia. 13. \*\*Knowledge Transfer:\*\* The transfer of knowledge between Arabs and Western European Christians was another crucial aspect of cultural interaction. Greek writings on moral and natural philosophy were translated into Arabic and later into Latin, facilitating the spread of classical knowledge across Europe. 14. \*\*Turks and the Abbasid Empire:\*\* The migration and conversion of the Turks to Islam led to the rise of the Seljuk Turkic Empire and contributed to the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire. This period saw significant cultural and political changes in the Islamic world. 15. \*\*Byzantine Empire:\*\* The Byzantine Empire played a role in spreading Christianity to Kievan Rus, and the migration of Byzantine scholars to Western Europe after the fall of Constantinople helped to spark the Renaissance by bringing classical knowledge to the West. 16. \*\*Aztecs:\*\* In the Americas, the Mexica people, known as the Aztecs, expanded their empire through conquest and the enslavement of captives, often using them for human sacrifice, which was a central aspect of their religious practices. 17. \*\*Incas:\*\* The Inca Empire, known for its vast and sophisticated civilization in South America, was primarily established by the Quechua people. The Incas were adept at conquering and subjugating other groups, expanding their territory through a combination of military might and strategic alliances. They practiced a system of complete ownership of all territory and property, with the emperor, or Sapa Inca, holding absolute authority. This centralized control allowed the Incas to efficiently manage their vast empire, integrating diverse peoples and cultures under a unified administration. 18. \*\*Hinduism in Southeast Asia:\*\* Hinduism played a significant role in shaping the cultural and religious landscape of Southeast Asia. One of the most iconic examples of Hindu influence is Angkor Wat in Cambodia, originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu. Over time, it became a symbol of the syncretic blend of Hindu and Buddhist traditions, reflecting the region\'s openness to diverse religious influences. 19. \*\*Srivijaya:\*\* The Srivijaya Empire, located in present-day Indonesia, was a powerful maritime kingdom that thrived on trade and cultural exchange. Indian advisors and officials were often present at the Srivijayan court, facilitating the spread of Indian culture and religion. Buddhism, in particular, had a profound influence on Srivijaya, as evidenced by the construction of Buddhist monuments and the adoption of Buddhist practices by the ruling elite. 20. \*\*Champa Kingdom:\*\* The Champa Kingdom, located in what is now Vietnam, was heavily influenced by Hinduism. The Champa people adopted Hindu deities and rituals, integrating them into their own cultural and religious practices. This syncretism is a testament to the fluidity and adaptability of religious traditions in the region. 21. \*\*Syncretism:\*\* Syncretism, the blending of different religious and cultural traditions, is a recurring theme in world history. In Vietnam, the concept of a \"female\" Buddha emerged, reflecting the integration of local beliefs with Buddhist teachings. In Japan, Buddhism and Shinto practices coexisted, creating a unique religious landscape. The Bantu language of East Africans adopted the Arabic script, illustrating the influence of Islamic culture. In early Kievan Rus, Christianity was blended with traditional nature gods, demonstrating the adaptability of religious practices. 22. \*\*Mongols:\*\* The Mongol Empire, under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his successors, conquered vast territories, including the Song Dynasty in China, the Abbasids in the Middle East, and the Seljuk Turks. However, the Mongols struggled to maintain their empire due to challenges in governance. The vastness of their empire made it difficult to administer effectively, and the lack of a unified administrative system led to fragmentation and eventual decline. 23. \*\*Governance:\*\* Governance structures varied widely across different regions and time periods. In Western Europe, the relationship between the Pope and kings was characterized by a complementary and cooperative dynamic, with the Pope as the spiritual leader and the king as the secular authority. The concept of divine right supported the king\'s authority, while the Lay Investiture Controversy highlighted tensions between papal supremacy and royal power. Over time, European kings began to centralize power, reducing the influence of nobles. In the Byzantine Empire, the concept of caesaropapism combined religious and political authority in the person of the emperor. This is comparable to the role of the Caliph in the Abbasid Caliphate, who was both the religious and political leader of the Islamic state. The Mandate of Heaven in China and Vietnam was a similar concept, granting the emperor divine authority to rule. The meritocratic examination system in the Song Dynasty and Vietnam ensured that bureaucratic positions were filled based on ability rather than birthright. In the Inca Empire, the emperor held ultimate authority as an absolute monarch, with complete ownership of land and resources. This centralized control allowed the Incas to maintain a cohesive and efficient administration. 24. \*\*Technology & Innovation\*\* Muslim advances in mathematics and medicine were significant during the medieval period. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, a prominent Persian scholar, made substantial contributions to trigonometry and astronomy, which later influenced European scientific thought. In medicine, Muslim scholars translated and expanded upon Greek and Roman texts, leading to advancements in medical knowledge and practices. The compass, an essential navigational tool, revolutionized sea travel by allowing sailors to determine direction even when the stars were obscured. This innovation facilitated long-distance trade and exploration. Champa rice, introduced to China from Vietnam, was a drought-resistant and fast-maturing variety that allowed for multiple harvests per year. This innovation in farming practices significantly boosted agricultural productivity and supported population growth in China. The three-field system was an agricultural innovation in medieval Europe that increased crop yields by rotating different crops and leaving one field fallow each year. This system improved soil fertility and food production. Woodblock printing and movable type, developed in China, revolutionized the dissemination of information by making books more accessible and affordable. This innovation eventually spread to Europe, leading to the printing revolution. The lateen sail, a triangular sail that allowed ships to sail against the wind, was a crucial innovation in maritime technology. It enabled more efficient sea travel and trade across the Mediterranean and beyond. Chinampas, or \"floating gardens,\" were an innovative agricultural technique used by the Aztecs in Mesoamerica. These artificial islands allowed for intensive farming in the swampy regions around Lake Texcoco. The heavy wheeled plow and horse-drawn plow were significant innovations in medieval Europe that improved agricultural efficiency. The use of iron horse shoes and improved agricultural equipment, supported by ironworks in Europe and Africa, further enhanced farming productivity. Under Muslim rule, Cordoba, Spain, became a center of innovation, with advancements in architecture, science, and culture. The city was known for its libraries, universities, and vibrant intellectual life. \*\*Social Structures\*\* 25. The power of aristocrats varied across societies, often holding significant influence over political and economic matters. In some civilizations, social mobility was possible, allowing individuals to rise through the ranks based on merit or wealth. 26. The caste system in India was a rigid social hierarchy, with the \"Untouchables\" at the bottom and other castes above them. This system dictated social interactions and occupations. 27. The Song Dynasty in China implemented a meritocratic examination system, allowing individuals to attain government positions based on their knowledge and abilities rather than their social status. 28. In medieval Europe, the feudal system defined social and economic relationships. During the early Middle Ages, nobles held significant power, often controlling judicial systems. The serf class worked the land for the nobles, while the High Middle Ages saw the rise of kings and the merchant class, although aristocrats remained powerful. 29. Population increases in China and Western Europe were driven by agricultural innovations and improved living conditions. These demographic changes influenced social structures and economic development. 30. Gender roles varied across societies, often influenced by cultural and religious beliefs. In Confucian societies, gender roles were shaped by Confucian ideals, emphasizing patriarchy and the subordination of women. 31. In the Americas, gender parallelism was a common social structure, where men and women had distinct but complementary roles. Some societies followed matrilineal lines, tracing descent through the mother\'s side, while others followed patrilineal lines. 32. \*\*Golden Age under Song Dynasty China:\*\* The Song Dynasty in China, which lasted from 960 to 1279, is often referred to as a \"Golden Age\" due to its remarkable economic prosperity and cultural achievements. During this period, China saw advancements in agriculture, such as the widespread use of fast-ripening rice, which increased food production. The Song Dynasty also developed a strong commercial economy, with thriving trade both domestically and internationally. The use of paper money and the expansion of the Grand Canal facilitated trade, making China a hub of economic activity in the world. 33. \*\*Vijayanagar:\*\* In southern India, the Vijayanagar Empire (1336--1646) was a significant center of trade and culture. The empire was known for its religious tolerance, allowing both Hindu and Muslim traders to flourish. This openness to different cultures and religions helped Vijayanagar become a vibrant trading hub, connecting the Indian subcontinent with other parts of Asia and the Middle East. 34. \*\*East African City-States:\*\* The East African city-states, such as Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar, were crucial players in the Indian Ocean trade network. These city-states were cosmopolitan centers where Indian and Persian traders, both temporary and permanent residents, engaged in commerce. They traded goods like gold, ivory, and slaves, which were exchanged for textiles, spices, and other luxury items from Asia and the Middle East. 35. \*\*Indian Ocean Trade Network:\*\* The Indian Ocean trade network was a vast maritime system that connected East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. This network facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures, making it one of the most important trade routes in the world. The monsoon winds played a crucial role in enabling ships to travel across the ocean, allowing for regular and predictable trade. 36. \*\*Trans-Saharan Trade Network:\*\* The Trans-Saharan trade network connected West Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean. This trade route was essential for the exchange of gold, salt, and other goods. Camels were the primary mode of transportation across the harsh desert environment. The trade network also facilitated the spread of Islam into West Africa, influencing the region\'s culture and society. 37. \*\*Silk Roads:\*\* The Silk Roads were a series of land-based trade routes that connected China with the Mediterranean world. These routes were vital for the exchange of silk, spices, and other luxury goods. The Silk Roads also facilitated cultural exchanges, spreading ideas, technologies, and religions across continents. 38. \*\*Western Europe:\*\* In Western Europe, the economic system was primarily based on feudalism and manorialism. Feudalism was a hierarchical system where land was exchanged for military service, while manorialism was the economic structure that supported feudalism, with serfs working the land for their lords. However, the growth of a merchant class began to challenge these systems. The Black Death, a devastating plague that swept through Europe in the 14th century, had a significant impact on the feudal system. With a large portion of the population wiped out, labor became scarce, leading to increased wages and better conditions for serfs. This shift contributed to the decline of feudalism and the rise of a more market-based economy. 39. \*\*Labor Practices:\*\* Labor practices varied across regions. In Europe, serfs were bound to the land and worked for their lords in exchange for protection and a small plot of land. In Africa, slavery was a common practice, with slaves being used for labor in various capacities. In Asia, peasants often worked the land, but their conditions and rights varied depending on the region and time period. 40. \*\*Song Dynasty\*\*: The Song Dynasty was a period in Chinese history from 960 to 1279. It is known for its advancements in technology, culture, and economics. The Song Dynasty is often divided into the Northern Song (960--1127) and the Southern Song (1127--1279) periods. 41. \*\*Confucianism\*\*: Confucianism is a philosophy based on the teachings of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher. It emphasizes moral values, social harmony, and respect for elders and authority. Confucianism played a significant role in shaping Chinese society and government. 42. \*\*Aristocracy\*\*: Aristocracy refers to a class of people who hold high social status and power, often due to their noble birth. In many societies, aristocrats were landowners and had significant influence over political and economic matters. 43. \*\*Elites\*\*: Elites are individuals or groups that hold a significant amount of power, wealth, or influence in a society. They often have access to resources and opportunities that others do not. 44. \*\*Gentry class\*\*: The gentry class in China was made up of educated landowners who held significant social and political influence. They were often Confucian scholars and played a key role in local governance. 45.. \*\*Filial piety\*\*: Filial piety is a Confucian concept that emphasizes respect and devotion to one\'s parents and ancestors. It is considered a fundamental virtue in Chinese culture. 46.. \*\*Censorate\*\*: The Censorate was a government agency in imperial China responsible for monitoring the behavior of officials and ensuring they were acting ethically and in accordance with the law. 47. \*\*Merit-based\*\*: A merit-based system is one in which individuals are rewarded or promoted based on their abilities and achievements rather than their social status or connections. 48. \*\*China's Economic Revolution\*\*: This refers to the period during the Song Dynasty when China experienced significant economic growth and development. Innovations in agriculture, trade, and technology contributed to this transformation. 49. \*\*Champa Rice\*\*: Champa rice is a fast-growing variety of rice that was introduced to China from Vietnam. It allowed for multiple harvests in a year, significantly boosting agricultural productivity. 50. \*\*Metallurgy\*\*: Metallurgy is the science and technology of working with metals. During the Song Dynasty, advancements in metallurgy led to the production of stronger and more durable tools and weapons. 51. \*\*Coal\*\*: Coal became an important energy source during the Song Dynasty, fueling the production of iron and other industries. 52. \*\*Woodblock and movable type\*\*: These are printing technologies developed in China. Woodblock printing involves carving text or images into a block of wood, while movable type uses individual characters that can be rearranged to print different texts. 53. \*\*Gunpowder\*\*: Gunpowder was invented in China and initially used for fireworks and later for military purposes, revolutionizing warfare. 54. \*\*Infrastructure\*\*: Infrastructure refers to the physical structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society, such as roads, bridges, and canals. 55. \*\*Grand Canal\*\*: The Grand Canal is a massive waterway in China that connects the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. It facilitated trade and transportation between northern and southern China. 56. \*\*Yellow River\*\*: The Yellow River, also known as the Huang He, is one of China\'s major rivers. It is often called the \"cradle of Chinese civilization\" due to its historical significance. 57. \*\*Yangtze River\*\*: The Yangtze River is the longest river in China and plays a crucial role in the country\'s agriculture, transportation, and economy. 58. \*\*Specialization\*\*: Specialization refers to the process of focusing on a specific type of work or production. In the context of the Song Dynasty, it often involved the development of specific crafts or industries. 59. \*\*Paper money\*\*: Paper money was first developed in China during the Song Dynasty as a more convenient alternative to metal coins. It facilitated trade and commerce. 60. \*\*Commercialization\*\*: Commercialization is the process of developing and managing trade and business activities. During the Song Dynasty, China saw increased commercialization, with more goods being produced for market exchange. 61. \*\*Promissory Note\*\*: A promissory note is a written promise to pay a specified amount of money to a certain person or entity at a future date. It was an early form of credit used in trade. 62. \*\*Letters of credit\*\*: Letters of credit are documents issued by a bank guaranteeing that a seller will receive payment from a buyer. They were used to facilitate trade by providing security for transactions. 63. \*\*Patriarchy\*\*: Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles in leadership, moral authority, and control over property. 64. \*\*Foot binding\*\*: Foot binding was a practice in China where young girls\' feet were tightly bound to prevent them from growing. It was considered a symbol of beauty and status but caused significant physical harm. 65. \*\*Dowry\*\*: A dowry is a transfer of parental property, wealth, or gifts given to a groom by the bride\'s family upon marriage. It was a common practice in many cultures, including China. 66. \*\*Tributary Relationship\*\*: This is a system where one country or region pays tribute to another, often more powerful, country. It\'s like when a smaller kingdom gives gifts or money to a bigger empire to show respect or to avoid being attacked. 67. \*\*"Bestowals"\*\*: These are gifts or honors given by someone in power. Imagine a king giving a knight a piece of land or a title as a reward for loyalty or bravery. 68. \*\*"Free Choice Marriages"\*\*: This term refers to marriages where individuals choose their partners based on love or personal preference, rather than arranged marriages where families decide. 69. \*\*Hangul\*\*: This is the alphabet used in Korea. It was created in the 15th century and is known for being easy to learn, which helped increase literacy in Korea. 70. \*\*Mandate of Heaven\*\*: This is an ancient Chinese belief that a ruler\'s authority comes from a divine source. If a ruler is just and effective, they have the Mandate of Heaven. If not, they can lose it, justifying rebellion. 71. \*\*Aristocratic Class\*\*: This is the social class made up of nobles or people with titles. They often have wealth, land, and power, and their status is usually inherited. 72. \*\*Bushido\*\*: This is the code of conduct for samurai in Japan. It emphasizes values like honor, bravery, and loyalty. 73. \*\*Kami\*\*: In Shinto, the traditional religion of Japan, kami are spirits or gods that inhabit natural elements like mountains, rivers, and trees. 74. \*\*Balkans\*\*: This is a region in Southeast Europe that includes countries like Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia. It\'s known for its diverse cultures and complex history. 75. \*\*Anatolia\*\*: This is a large peninsula in modern-day Turkey. It has been home to many ancient civilizations, including the Hittites and Byzantines. 76. \*\*Abbasid Caliphate\*\*: This was a major Islamic empire that ruled from 750 to 1258. It was known for its cultural and scientific achievements, especially during the Golden Age of Islam. 77. \*\*Caliph/Caliphate\*\*: A caliph is a leader of the Muslim community, and a caliphate is the area they rule. It\'s both a political and religious position. 78. \*\*Pastoralist\*\*: These are people who raise livestock and move around to find grazing land. They often live in areas where farming is difficult. 79. \*\*Steppes\*\*: These are large, flat grasslands found in places like Central Asia. They\'re ideal for pastoralists because they provide lots of space for grazing animals. 80. \*\*Sultan\*\*: This is a title for a Muslim ruler, especially in the Ottoman Empire. A sultan has both political and military authority. 81. \*\*Caste System\*\*: This is a social hierarchy found in India, where people are born into a specific group that determines their job and social status. 82. \*\*Untouchables\*\*: In the caste system, these are people who are outside the traditional hierarchy and often face discrimination and exclusion. 83. \*\*Egalitarian\*\*: This term describes a society where everyone is considered equal, with no one having more power or wealth than others. 84. \*\*Al-Andalus\*\*: This was the name for parts of Spain and Portugal that were under Muslim rule from the 8th to the 15th century. It was known for its cultural and scientific advancements. 85. \*\*Abd al Rahman III\*\*: He was a ruler of Al-Andalus who helped make it a powerful and prosperous region. He was known for his tolerance and support of the arts and sciences. 86. \*\*Ibn Battuta\*\*: He was a famous Muslim traveler and explorer from the 14th century. He traveled across Africa, Asia, and Europe, documenting his journeys. 87. \*\*Mansa Musa\*\*: He was the emperor of the Mali Empire in the 14th century and is known for his incredible wealth and his pilgrimage to Mecca, which showcased the riches of his empire. 88. \*\*al-Mansur\*\*: He was a caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate who helped establish Baghdad as a major center of learning and culture. 89. \*\*Reconquista\*\*: This was the period when Christian kingdoms in Spain worked to reclaim land from Muslim rulers, eventually leading to the fall of Al-Andalus. 90. \*\*Isabella & Ferdinand\*\*: They were the Catholic monarchs of Spain who completed the Reconquista and sponsored Christopher Columbus\'s voyage to the Americas. 91. \*\*Byzantine Empire/Byzantium\*\*: This was the eastern part of the Roman Empire that continued for nearly a thousand years after the fall of Rome. It was known for its rich culture and strong Christian influence. 92. \*\*Centralized Government\*\*: This is a system where a central authority controls the entire country, making decisions and enforcing laws from a single point of power. 93. \*\*Rus\*\*: This term refers to the early medieval people and regions in Eastern Europe, which eventually became Russia. They were influenced by both Viking and Slavic cultures. 94. \*\*Hybrid/Blended Civilization\*\*: This describes a society that combines elements from different cultures, creating a unique mix of traditions, languages, and customs. 95. \*\*Mediterranean Sea\*\*: This is a large sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Europe, Asia, and Africa. It\'s been a major route for trade and cultural exchange throughout history. 96. \*\*Black Sea\*\*: This is a sea in Eastern Europe, bordered by countries like Turkey, Russia, and Ukraine. It\'s connected to the Mediterranean Sea and has been important for trade and military strategy. 97. \*\*Caesaropapism\*\*: This is a political-religious system where the ruler has authority over both the state and the church, often seen in the Byzantine Empire. 98. \*\*Autonomy\*\*: This means having the freedom to govern oneself or make one\'s own decisions. In history, regions or groups often sought autonomy from larger empires or states. 99. \*\*Patriarch - Orthodox Church\*\*: The Patriarch is a high-ranking leader in the Orthodox Church, similar to the Pope in the Catholic Church. The Orthodox Church is a branch of Christianity that split from the Catholic Church in 1054 during the Great Schism. 100. \*\*Absolute/Supreme Authority\*\*: This term refers to having complete control or power over something. In history, it often describes rulers or religious leaders who had total control over their people or followers. 101. \*\*Crusades\*\*: The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims during the medieval period, primarily to control the Holy Land in the Middle East. 102. \*\*Pope Urban II\*\*: He was the Pope who initiated the First Crusade in 1095 by calling Christians to take up arms to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. 103. \*\*Fourth Crusade\*\*: This was one of the later Crusades that took place from 1202 to 1204. Instead of reaching the Holy Land, the Crusaders ended up sacking Constantinople, a Christian city, which deepened the divide between the Eastern and Western Churches. 104. \*\*Cyrillic Alphabet\*\*: This is a writing system developed in the 9th century by Saints Cyril and Methodius to help Slavic peoples read the Bible in their own language. It is still used in many Slavic countries today. 105. \*\*Terminal decline\*\*: This term refers to the final stages of a decline or downfall, often used to describe the end of empires or civilizations. 106. \*\*Administrative function of the state\*\*: This involves the organization and management of a state\'s affairs, including law enforcement, tax collection, and public services. 107. \*\*Welfare functions of the state\*\*: These are services provided by the government to ensure the well-being of its citizens, such as healthcare, education, and social security. 108. \*\*Western Christendom\*\*: This term refers to the Christian-dominated regions of Western Europe during the Middle Ages, which were under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. 109. \*\*Decentralized Government\*\*: A system where power is distributed among various local authorities rather than being concentrated in a central government. 110. \*\*Feudalism\*\*: A social and economic system in medieval Europe where land was owned by lords who allowed vassals to use it in exchange for military service and loyalty. 111. \*\*Manorialism\*\*: An economic system in medieval Europe where peasants worked the land for a lord in exchange for protection and a place to live. 112. \*\*Lord & Vassal\*\*: In feudal society, a lord was a landowner who granted land to a vassal in exchange for loyalty and service. 113. \*\*Nobles/Aristocrats\*\*: These were people of high social rank, often owning land and having significant influence and power in society. 114. \*\*Monastery\*\*: A religious community where monks live, work, and worship, often isolated from the outside world. 115. \*\*Latin\*\*: The language of the Romans, which became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church and was used in scholarly and religious texts during the Middle Ages. 116. \*\*Vernacular language\*\*: The everyday language spoken by ordinary people in a particular region, as opposed to Latin, which was used in formal settings. 117. \*\*Secular v. Sacred\*\*: Secular refers to things that are not religious or spiritual, while sacred refers to things that are holy or related to religion. 118. \*\*Merchant class\*\*: A social class made up of people who engage in trade and commerce, often becoming wealthy and influential in medieval towns. 119. \*\*Charters\*\*: Documents that grant rights or privileges, often used to establish towns or guilds in medieval Europe. 120. \*\*Capitalism\*\*: An economic system where trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. 121. \*\*Heavy wheeled plow\*\*: An agricultural tool that allowed for more efficient farming by turning over heavy soil, leading to increased food production. 122. \*\*Horse-drawn plow\*\*: A plow pulled by horses, which was faster and more efficient than using oxen, leading to improved agricultural productivity. 123. \*\*Iron horse shoes\*\*: Metal shoes fitted to horses\' hooves to protect them and improve their ability to work on hard or rocky ground. 124. \*\*Labor-saving devices\*\*: Tools or machines that reduce the amount of work needed to perform a task, making work more efficient. 125. \*\*Labor-augmenting devices\*\*: Tools or machines that increase the productivity of workers, allowing them to accomplish more in less time. 126. \*\*Artisans\*\*: Skilled workers who make goods by hand, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, and weavers. 127. \*\*Guild\*\*: An association of artisans or merchants who oversee the practice of their trade in a particular area, often setting standards and prices. 128. \*\*Moratorium\*\*: A temporary halt or suspension of an activity or law, often used to address a crisis or problem. 129. \*\*Natural philosophy\*\*: The study of the natural world, which later evolved into modern science. It involved observing and explaining natural phenomena. 130. \*\*Theology\*\*: The study of religious beliefs, often focusing on the nature of God and religious truths. 131. \*\*Thomas Aquinas\*\*: A medieval theologian and philosopher who sought to reconcile faith and reason, known for his work \"Summa Theologica.\" 132. \*\*Scholasticism\*\*: A medieval school of thought that used logic and reason to explore religious and philosophical questions. 133. \*\*European Renaissance\*\*: A cultural movement that began in Italy in the 14th century, characterized by a renewed interest in classical art, literature, and learning. 134. \*\*Ad fontes\*\*: A Latin phrase meaning \"to the sources,\" reflecting the Renaissance emphasis on returning to original texts and classical sources for knowledge. 135. \*\*Individualism\*\*: A belief in the importance of individual rights and independence, often associated with the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods. 136. \*\*Olmecs\*\*: An ancient civilization in Mesoamerica known for their large stone heads and influence on later cultures like the Maya and Aztecs. 137. \*\*Mayan Civilization\*\*: An advanced Mesoamerican civilization known for its writing system, architecture, and astronomical knowledge. 138. \*\*Aztec Empire\*\*: A powerful Mesoamerican empire centered in present-day Mexico, known for its complex society and impressive capital, Tenochtitlan. 139. \*\*Maize\*\*: Maize, also known as corn, was a staple crop for many ancient civilizations in the Americas. It was crucial for the diet and economy of societies like the Aztecs and the Incas. 140. \*\*Tenochtitlan\*\*: This was the capital city of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco in present-day Mexico City. It was a large and impressive city with temples, palaces, and a complex system of canals. 141. \*\*Floating gardens (chinampas)\*\*: These were innovative agricultural plots used by the Aztecs. They were created by piling soil onto rafts anchored in lakes, allowing for efficient farming in swampy areas. 142. \*\*Tlacaelel\*\*: A prominent Aztec leader and advisor who played a significant role in shaping the empire\'s policies, including the emphasis on human sacrifice as a religious practice. 143. \*\*Human sacrifice\*\*: This was a religious ritual practiced by the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican cultures, believed to appease the gods and ensure the continuation of the world. 144. \*\*Inca Empire\*\*: A vast empire in South America, stretching along the Andes Mountains. It was known for its sophisticated road systems, architecture, and centralized government. 145. \*\*Mexica\*\*: The Mexica were the people who founded the Aztec Empire. They migrated to the Valley of Mexico and established Tenochtitlan as their capital. 146. \*\*Quipu\*\*: A system of knotted strings used by the Incas for record-keeping and communication. It was an essential tool for managing their vast empire. 147. \*\*Viracocha\*\*: A creator god in Inca mythology, believed to have created the world and all living things. 148. \*\*Inti\*\*: The sun god and one of the most important deities in the Inca religion. The Sapa Inca, the emperor, was considered a descendant of Inti. 149. \*\*Quechua\*\*: The language of the Inca Empire, still spoken by millions of people in the Andes today. It was used for administration and communication across the empire. 150. \*\*Cuzco\*\*: The capital city of the Inca Empire, located in present-day Peru. It was the political and cultural center of the empire. 151. \*\*"Sun farms"\*\*: Agricultural lands dedicated to the sun god Inti, where crops were grown to support religious ceremonies and the Inca state. 152. \*\*Chosen women\*\*: Young women selected by the Inca state to serve in religious roles, often in temples dedicated to the sun god. 153. \*\*"Wives of the sun"\*\*: Another term for the chosen women, highlighting their sacred role in Inca society. 154. \*\*"Gender Parallelism"\*\*: A social system in which men and women have separate but equally important roles and responsibilities, as seen in some Andean societies. 155. \*\*Autonomy\*\*: The ability of a group or region to govern itself independently. In historical contexts, it often refers to the degree of self-rule within larger empires. 156. \*\*Ambiguity\*\*: The quality of being open to multiple interpretations. In history, this can refer to unclear or debated aspects of past events or cultures. 157. \*\*"Barbarian", "savage"\*\*: Terms historically used by some civilizations to describe others they viewed as less advanced or uncivilized. These terms are now considered biased and ethnocentric. 158. \*\*"Uncivilized" v. "civilized"\*\*: A dichotomy often used to judge societies based on their technological or cultural development. Modern historians recognize the complexity and value of all societies. 159. \*\*Warfare\*\*: The practice of armed conflict between groups. In ancient civilizations, warfare was often used to expand territory or control resources. 160. \*\*Complex societies\*\*: Societies with developed social structures, economies, and political systems. They often have cities, specialized labor, and organized governments. 161. \*\*Urban-based societies\*\*: Societies centered around cities, which serve as hubs for trade, culture, and governance. 162. \*\*State-organized societies\*\*: Societies with centralized governments that maintain order, collect taxes, and provide services. 163. \*\*Local identities\*\*: The unique cultural, social, and political characteristics of a specific region or community within a larger society. 164. \*\*Core region\*\*: The central area of a civilization or empire, often where the most significant political and economic activities occur. 165. \*\*Chiefdom\*\*: A form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies, usually led by a chief who holds authority over a community or group of communities. 166. \*\*Civilization\*\*: A complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification, cultural achievements, and centralized governance. 167. \*\*Balkans\*\*: A region in Southeast Europe known for its diverse cultures and complex history. It has been a crossroads of various civilizations and empires throughout history.