Social Inequalities Study Notes

Social Inequalities  What do we mean by social stratification? o Social stratification is the organized way society allocates resources, leading to structured and unequal access to goods, services, power, and prestige  How are social stratificat...

Social Inequalities  What do we mean by social stratification? o Social stratification is the organized way society allocates resources, leading to structured and unequal access to goods, services, power, and prestige  How are social stratification and social differentiation related? o Social differentiation refers to the division of society into different roles or groups (like age, gender, or occupation), while social stratification builds on this by ranking these groups hierarchically, leading to inequality in resource access  How are social stratification and social complexity related? o As societies become more complex, with more institutions, urbanization, and organized groups, stratification tends to deepen, creating more entrenched inequalities in access to resources  When it comes to making sense of social stratification, what are some features of the functionalist perspective? What about theories based on conflict? o Functionalist Perspective  Argues stratification benefits society by rewarding effort, motivating people to take on important roles, and maintaining social order o Conflict Perspective  Views stratification as a result of competition over resources, leading to power imbalances and social control by dominant groups  Emphasizes inequality, exploitation, and the potential for social unrest  What do we mean by power, wealth, and prestige? How are these related to each other? o Power   The ability to control resources and influence others to benefit one's group o Wealth  The accumulation of material resources and capital o Prestige  The level of social honor or respect based on factors like occupation, race, or family o These are interconnected dimensions of stratification; wealth can lead to power, and both can influence prestige  What do we mean by ascribed and achieved status? What do we mean by open and closed stratification systems? How are these two sets of categories related to each other? o Ascribed Status  Assigned at birth (e.g., race, family, background) o Achieved Status  Earned through individual actions (e.g., education, jobs) o Open Stratification System  Allows mobility based on achievement o Closed Stratification System  Limits mobility, status is primarily based on ascription o They are related because open systems emphasize achieved status, while closed systems enforce ascribed status  What do mean by a caste system? Be prepared to describe some features of India's caste system in very broad outline. o A caste system is a rigid, hereditary social hierarchy that restricts movement between groups o India's Caste System (broad outline)  Brahmins: Priests and scholars  Kshatriyas: Warriors and rulers   Vaisyas: Merchants  Shudras: Laborers and artisans  Dalits (Untouchables): performed stigmatized, menial tasks o Caste determined marriage, occupation, and social interaction; it has weakened in urban areas due to legal reforms and activism  What do we mean a class system? Be prepared to describe some features of Colonial America's class system in very broad outline. o A class system allows for social mobility and is ideally based on individual achievement o Colonial America's Class System  Top: Wealthy landowners in patriarchal families  Middle: Artisans and shopkeepers with mixed fortunes  Bottom: Indentured servants and enslaved people with little or no rights o Although mobility was possible, structural barriers made upward movement difficult for many The Biology of Race  At a broad level, be able to explain how variation between humans can be due to genes, environments, and cultures o Human variation arises from:  Genes:  inherited traits, like eye color or susceptibility to certain conditions  Environment:  external factors like climate or nutrition that affect development (e.g., weight differences between North and South Koreans due to food access)  Culture:   Learned behaviors and practices (e.g., language, customs) also shape differences o Most human traits result from the interaction of all three factors.  Why does skin color vary across populations the way that it does? o Skin color variation is an adaptation to environmental conditions:  Darker Skin  Near the equator protects against folate degradation from intense UV exposure  Lighter Skin  Higher latitudes enables better vitamin D production with less sunlight o The variation evolved through natural selection, not racial categories  Most traits that we care about are affected by lots of genes. What is 'heritability' and how does this concept help us make sense of the source of variation? o Heritability:  The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic differences within a population  It helps scientists understand whether traits (like height or intelligence) are more influenced by genes or by environment, in a specific context, but it doesn't mean traits are fixed or solely genetic  How can twin studies help us make sense of heritability? o By comparing identical twins (same genes) raised in different environments, researchers can isolate genetic influences o If twins show similarities despite different upbringings, the trait may be highly heritable o These studies help distinguish between nature (genes) and nurture (environment)   Many people have misconceptions about what race means when it comes to biologically categorizing people. We spoke about three common misconceptions. Be able to explain these misconceptions and the kinds of evidence we have to debunk them. o Humans can be divided into distinct races  Debunked:  Genetic variation is continuous across geographic space; no clear-cut boundaries exist o Race reflects important biological or behavioral differences  Debunked:  Cultural and environmental factors explain behavioral differences better than genetics o Racial differences are biologically grounded  Debunked:  Studies (e.g., in Brazil) show no correlation between self-identified race and actual genetic ancestry  What can we learn about variation across human populations when comparing humans to chimpanzees? o Humans show more genetic similarity to each other than chimpanzees do to each other  About 85% of genetic variation exists within populations, not between them  This challenges the notion of biologically distinct races, emphasizing how genetically unified humans are as a species Race & Ethnicity  What do we mean when we say that race is not biological related but, instead, a social construct?  o Race is not a scientifically valid or biologically consistent way to categorize humans. o Instead, it is a social and political idea, shaped by historical, cultural, and institutional forces that vary across time and place. o Traits used to define race (like skin color) have no consistent genetic boundaries  How is/was race socially constructed in Japan? o Japan has historically emphasized cultural homogeneity, often marginalizing ethnic minorities like the Burakumin, Ainu, and Koreans, not based on biology, but on perceived cultural and ancestral differences. o These social boundaries are enforced through cultural exclusion, not scientific or genetic criteria  How is/was race socially constructed in the United States? o In the US race has been constructed through a rigid, often binary system (e.g., black/white) tied to laws and policies like the "one- drop rule" where any black ancestry classified a person as black o Racial categories have been used to justify segregation, slavery, and unequal access to rights  How is/was race socially constructed in Brazil? o Brazil uses a more fluid and gradational system of racial classification, based largely on appearance, especially skin tone, rather than ancestry o Individuals may identify along a spectrum (e.g., moreno, pardo) and can shift racial identity depending on context, reflecting greater flexibility than in the US  How are racial categories similar and different when comparing the United States and Brazil? o Similarities  Both societies have histories of colonization and slavery and use race to structure inequality o Differences   The US follows a more binary and ancestry-based system (e.g., Black/White, "one-drop rule")  What is a possible reason why the United States and Brazil have different classification systems for race? o Differences stem from historical, legal, and cultural contexts:  The US had legal segregation and strict racial boundaries, while Brazil promoted a myth of racial democracy post- slavery, encouraging more ambiguous racial categories  Brazil emphasizes appearance over ancestry, partly as a result of colonial blending and lack of legal segregation  What is ethnicity and how is it different from race as a way of classifying and categorizing groups of people? o Ethnicity refers to shared cultural traits like language, religion, and national origin rather than physical appearance or ancestry  Race tends to categorize people based on perceived biological traits  Ethnicity is about shared cultural identity and can often be chosen or emphasized by individuals themselvess  What are the three major ideas and ideals about the process by which immigrants adapt to America after arrival? o Assimilation  Immigrants adopt the dominant culture and shed their original cultural identities o Multiculturalism (or Pluralism)  Immigrants retain distinct cultural traditions while coexisting with the dominant society o Segmented Assimilation  Different groups assimilate in unequal ways, with some integrating economically and socially while others face systemic barriers and exclusion Colonialims and its Consequences  What do we mean when we talk about a World System? When did the world become a system in this way according to historians? Why? o A world system refers to the global network of economic, political, and cultural interconnections that emerged through trade, conquest, and colonization  Historians generally trace this to the 16th century, during European maritime expansion (starting with the age of exploration), which linked continents via the Columbian Exchange and colonial empires  The integration formed a single global economy, where events in one region (e.g. sugar demand in Europe) deeply affected others (e.g., labor systems in the Caribbean  What are some of the things that moved from the Old World to the New World, and from the New World to the Old World as a result of the Columbian Exchange? o Old World --> New World  Diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza)  Livestock (horses, pigs, cattle)  Grains (wheat, barley, rice)  Sugarcane, coffee o New World --> Old World  Crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cacao)  Syphilis (possibly)  Gold, silver, and other resources  New labor sources (including enslaved peoples via transatlantic systems)  What were some of the reasons why Europeans were motivated to explore, conquer, and colonize the rest of the world? o Religious zeal (especially spreading Christianity) o Economic gain (access to spices, gold, and trade routes)  o Curiosity and myth (desire to find legendary lands like Prester John's kingdom) o Imperial rivalry (competing for global dominance and prestige) o Desire for land and resources (to support growing populations)  What were some of the reasons why Europeans were able to explore, conquer, and colonize the rest of the world? o Technological advances (e.g., caravels, compass, chronometer) o Military superiority (gunpowder weapons, steel swords, naval power) o Immunity to diseases (which devasted indigenous populations) o Joint stock companies (pooling capital for voyages) o Fragmentation of local societies (making them more vulnerable to conquest)  What do we mean when we refer to Colonialism? Why do we talk about the Colonial Era differently than previous periods of history in which some groups conquered other groups? o Colonialism is the direct control and political domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power, usually for economic and strategic benefit o The Colonial Era (starting in the 15th century) differs due to its global scale, racial ideologies, economic exploitation, and lasting legacies (e.g., modern borders, inequality) o It was not just conquest, it involved systemic restructuring of societies and economies  What were some of the ways in which colonial powers forced people into labor? o Slavery (especially the transatlantic slave trade) o Corvee labor (forced unpaid labor) o Indentured servitude (often with harsh, exploitative conditions)  o Debt peonage and taxation-based coercion, where locals had to work to earn currency to pay taxes o Forced conscription and militarized labor  How was industrialism related to colonialism? o Industrialism increased demand for raw materials (cotton, rubber, minerals) much of which came from colonies o Colonies served as markets for manufactured goods and sources of cheap labor o Industrial powers built infrastructure (e.g., railroads, ports) in colonies to extract resources more efficiently o The industrial economy depended on global colonial networks to sustain growth  Why was taxation important to colonialism? o Taxes forced indigenous populations into the cash economy, making them dependent on colonial labor markets o It provided revenue for colonial administrations, helping maintain military and bureaucratic control o By requiring payment in currency (not local goods), it disrupted subsistence economies and increased reliance on colonial systems  How was ideology used to justify colonialism? o Racial Superiority  Europeans portrayed themselves as inherently superior to justify domination o The White Man's Burden  Claimed it was a moral duty to "civilize" non-European people o Religious Missions  Framed conquest as a way to save souls and spread Christianity  o Social Darwinism  Misapplied evolutionary theory to argue that some groups were more "fit" to rule o These ideologies masked exploitation and violence under the guise of progress and morality Globalization and its Discontents  What do we mean by globalization? o Globalization refers to the increasing international interconnectedness and interdependence of countries, particularly through trade, communication, migration, and cultural exchange. It can involve both economic integration (like global markets) and cultural influences across borders.  What is the logic of trade? How does trade make countries richer? How is this related to the sexual division of labor that we talked about when discussing foraging societies? o Trade allows countries to specialize in what they produce most efficiently, leading to higher productivity and mutual gains. This mirrors the sexual division of labor in foraging societies, where different tasks were divided (e.g., hunting vs. gathering) to optimize resource use and survival. Just as individuals specialized in roles, countries specialize in industries or products.  What are some of the drawbacks to more trade between regions? Who benefits? Who doesn’t? o Drawbacks include:  Job losses due to outsourcing and factory closures  Environmental degradation  Growing inequality  Cultural disruption o Beneficiaries: Wealthy countries, multinational corporations, and skilled workers in high-demand sectors (e.g., tech, finance).  o Losers: Low-skilled workers, traditional industries, and underdeveloped nations lacking leverage in global markets.  What has happened to economic inequality in countries like America over the last generation or two? Which kinds of professions have gotten richer? Which have not? o Economic inequality has risen significantly. o Gotten richer: Tech professionals, executives, financiers. o Stagnated or declined: Factory workers, drivers, retail workers, and others in low-skilled or easily outsourced professions.  What are some reasons why social scientists think we should or should not care about economic inequality? o Reasons to care:  It leads to social instability and weaker democracy.  It reduces overall well-being and social mobility.  It reflects systemic injustices, not just differences in talent or effort.  Counterargument: o Some argue inequality creates incentives for innovation and productivity. However, extreme inequality is widely seen as harmful.  What are some common characteristics of rich, developed countries when compared to poor, underdeveloped countries? o Rich countries often have:  Stable governance and property rights  High levels of education and health  Low corruption  Industrial economies and robust infrastructure  Gender equality and democratic institutions o Poor countries may struggle with:   Political instability  Poor public services  Low educational attainment  Health burdens (especially in tropical climates)  High levels of corruption or inequality  Since WWII, we have seen three broad approaches to help poor countries develop. Describe these three approaches. o Modernization Theory:  Assumes that poor countries can follow the same industrial path as wealthy ones.  Promoted industrialization, urbanization, and western-style governance.  Criticized for overlooking structural inequalities and cultural context. o Human Needs Approach:  Focused on meeting basic needs (clean water, healthcare, education).  Emphasized local participation.  Faced setbacks due to limited funding and waning donor interest. o Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs):  Required by the IMF/World Bank for loan access.  Called for reduced government spending, privatization, and market liberalization.  Often led to job losses and worsened poverty in the short term. Misinformation and Conspiracy  Name and describe the archetypes of conspiracy detailed by Jesse Walker? Be prepared to provide an example, real or made up, of each? o Enemy Within  Description  Internal traitors or subversives within the community  Example  The Salem Witch Trials, where community members were accused of dark, hidden allegiances o Enemy Outside  Description  Threats posed by outsiders or foreign groups  Example  Cold War fears of Soviet spies infiltrating the US o Enemy Above  Description  Powerful elites or institutions acting against the public  Example  The Illuminati or "Deep State" conspiracies o Enemy below  Description  Lower classes or marginalized groups attempting to revolt or disrupt order  Example  Fears of labor uprising or social unrest in populist movements o Benevolent Conspiracy  Description   Secret groups working to help humanity  Example  The Tartarian conspiracy or myths about ancient civilizations offering lost knowledge  Name and describe common traits of conspiratorial thinking. o Inconsistency  Theories may contradict themselves but are accepted if they support the core belief o Focus on Unknowns  Exploits areas with low public knowledge (e.g., medicine, archaeology) o Community Reinforcement  Creates strong in-group identity while vilifying outsiders o Framing Vulnerability  Often centers on protecting vulnerable groups, especially children o Oversimplification  Reduces complex societal issues to simple good vs. evil narratives  What purpose was the myth of the mound builders used for in 19th century politics? o The myth falsely claimed that Indigenous Americans could not have built the mounds, attributing them instead to ancient, lost civilizations (e.g., Vikings, Israelites). o Purpose:  Delegitimized Native land claims.  Justified westward expansion and the Indian Removal Act.  Supported a narrative of European superiority and entitlement to American land.  What are reasons that people fall for conspiratorial thinking? o Primal Fears: Exploits fear for vulnerable groups (children, national identity). o Need for Explanation: Offers simple, emotionally satisfying answers to complex events. o Social Upheaval: Becomes more attractive during uncertainty or change. o Confirmation Bias: Reinforces preexisting beliefs and mistrust. o Community Isolation: Encourages withdrawal from dissenting information sources.  What kinds of questions should ask yourself to identify conspiracy theories that you encounter? o Is the theory falsifiable or does it explain away all counter- evidence? o Does it rely on secret knowledge not available to others? o Who benefits from believing or spreading this theory? o Are there simpler, more evidence-based explanations? o Does the theory encourage distrust in all official sources without basis?