Earth Science Reviewer - Finals PDF

REVIEWER IN EARTH AND SCIENCE – Affects poor communities the FINALS IMNIDA most. BY: SEIKA 2. Fossil Fuel Depletion (PS: Base ito sa pagkaintindi...

REVIEWER IN EARTH AND SCIENCE – Affects poor communities the FINALS IMNIDA most. BY: SEIKA 2. Fossil Fuel Depletion (PS: Base ito sa pagkaintindi ko at sa nabasa ko sa Handouts/notes/PPT/Google. Kung may hindi Finite supply; overuse threatens kayo maintindihan o gusto i clear, pwede niyo future availability. ring i check sa Google/Handouts para sure kayo 3. Natural Gas Depletion Thankies!) Key component: Methane (CH₄). Resource Depletion Used for fuel and manufacturing. Natural Resources Definition: Materials obtained from 4. Biodiversity Loss nature that are useful to humans. Reduction in species, genetics, and Examples: Air, water, wood, oil, coal, ecosystems. iron, wind energy. Caused by extinction, habitat loss, Processed resources (e.g., refined oil, human interference. hydroelectric power) are not natural resources. Causes of Resource Depletion Overpopulation – More people = more Types of Resources demand. 1. Renewable Resources Over-consumption – Higher living Replenished naturally over time. standards = more waste. Sustainable even with human Deforestation – For development; consumption. destroys habitats and wood sources. Examples: Solar, wind, biomass. Mining – Depletes mineral and oil reserves. 2. Non-Renewable Resources Industrial Development – Increases need Finite; take a long time to form. for raw materials. Once depleted, cannot be replaced. Soil Erosion – Removes minerals due to Examples: Coal, oil, natural gas. loss of forest cover. Pollution – Contaminates land, water, and Resource Depletion air resources. Definition: Occurs when resources are used faster than they can be restored. Effects of Resource Depletion Commonly Affected: Water, fossil fuels, Resource Scarcity – Limited supply of forests, fish stocks. essential resources. Main Cause: Human activities. Rising Prices – Costs of food, fuel, energy go up. Types of Resource Depletion Water Shortages – Nearly 1 billion lack 1. Water Scarcity access to clean water. Due to overuse, poor infrastructure, Environmental Degradation – Leads to and climate change. climate change and habitat destruction. Weathering Hydration: Minerals absorb water and expand. Weathering is the breaking down or wearing away of rocks, soil, and minerals Oxidation: Oxygen reacts with minerals over time by natural elements like water, (e.g., rusting of iron). wind, ice, and living organisms. Reduction: Removal of oxygen from It shapes the Earth’s landscapes and minerals. plays a vital role in soil formation. 3. Biological Weathering It happens slowly and does not involve movement of materials. Caused by living organisms like plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria. Controlling Factors of Weathering Organisms weaken rock structure, making 1. Rock composition and structure them more prone to other weathering types. 2. Ground slope/nature of terrain Examples: 3. Climate variations (temperature, rainfall, etc.) By Plants: Roots grow into cracks in rocks, widening and breaking them over 4. Floral effects (influence of plant life) time. Types of Weathering By Animals: Burrowing animals (e.g., earthworms, ants) disturb rocks and bring 1. Mechanical (Physical) Weathering them to the surface, exposing them to Breaks down rocks into smaller pieces further weathering. without changing their chemical makeup. Impact on Landscapes and the Environment Caused mainly by temperature changes, pressure release, and physical forces. Weathering helps form landforms like valleys, cliffs, and caves. Examples: Contributes to ecosystem development by Freeze-thaw / Frost Wedging: Water forming soil. enters cracks, freezes, expands, and breaks the rock. Influences construction, agriculture, and natural hazards. Exfoliation / Unloading: Pressure release causes rocks to peel off in layers (like Difference Between Erosion and Weathering onion skin), common in igneous rocks. Erosion and weathering are the processes in which the rocks are broken down into fine 2. Chemical Weathering particles. Erosion is the process in which rock Changes the chemical composition of particles are carried away by wind and water. rocks and minerals through reactions. Weathering, on the other hand, degrades the Happens due to air, water, and acids. rocks without displacing them. Processes include: Land Erosion Solution: Minerals dissolve in water. Land erosion is the removal and transportation of soil, rocks, and other Carbonation: CO₂ dissolves in rainwater surface materials by wind, water, ice, or forming carbonic acid that reacts with human activity. rocks.  It causes land degradation, loss of fertile over it. These channels can become deeper topsoil, and contributes to pollution and over time if not managed. sedimentation in water bodies. 3. Gully Erosion Degradation: The wearing away or Gully erosion happens when water runoff decline of land (e.g., erosion, pollution, becomes concentrated and carves deep deforestation). ditches or gullies in the land. It can cause Aggradation: The buildup of land by severe damage to farmland, roads, and accumulation of sediments (e.g., river buildings. deposits, wind-blown sand). 4. Coastal Erosion Causes of Land Erosion This form of erosion affects shorelines, where waves, tides, wind, and ocean Natural Causes: currents wear away rock, soil, and sand. It 1. Water Erosion – Rainfall and flowing can result in the loss of coastal land and water wash away soil. habitats. 2. Wind Erosion – Wind lifts and carries 5. Splash Erosion loose soil, especially in dry regions. Splash erosion is the initial stage of water 3. Glacial Erosion – Moving glaciers scrape erosion. When raindrops hit bare soil, they and grind the land beneath them. dislodge and scatter soil particles, making the land more vulnerable to further 4. Ice/Freeze Erosion – Water seeps into erosion. cracks, freezes, and expands, breaking apart soil and rocks. Effects of Land Erosion Human Causes: Environmental Impact: Loss of 1. Deforestation – Tree removal weakens biodiversity, pollution in rivers/lakes. soil structure. Agricultural Impact: Loss of fertile 2. Poor Agricultural Practices – topsoil, reduced crop yields. Overgrazing and tilling expose and Infrastructure Damage: Roads, weaken soil. buildings, and bridges may collapse due to 3. Urbanization & Construction – Roads, unstable land. mining, and buildings disturb and loosen MASS WASTING soil. Mass wasting is the downward movement of soil, Types of Erosion rocks, and debris due to gravity. It’s also called 1. Sheet Erosion mass movement or slope movement. This type of erosion involves the gradual water, wind, and glaciers can contribute, removal of thin layers of topsoil caused by the main driving force is gravity. The raindrops or shallow surface water. It steeper the slope, the faster the often goes unnoticed until significant soil movement. has been lost. Types of Mass Wasting: 2. Rill Erosion 1. Rock Fall Rill erosion occurs when small channels, called rills, form in the soil as water flows Happens when rocks break loose from a cliff and fall freely, bounce, or roll down.  Can range in size from small pebbles to Landslides: Leave scarps, terraces, and massive blocks. poorly sorted debris (sometimes with boudinage clay patterns). Forms features like talus slopes or rock glaciers near the base of cliffs. Debris Flows: Leave long tracks with natural levees and mixed textures; 2. Debris Fall commonly form parts of alluvial fans. Involves a mixture of loose soil and Solifluction: Results in lobed deposits vegetation that falls from a slope. with rocks aligned across the slope. 3. Landslides Human Activities That Trigger Mass Wasting: Sudden and rapid movement of rock or soil. Removal of vegetation – Plants help hold soil together. Caused by heavy rain, earthquakes, or volcanic activity. Over-steepening of slopes – Can make the land unstable. Often results in scars or terraced landforms on slopes. Adding too much moisture – From irrigation, leaks, or deforestation. Types of Landslides: DEPOSITION Rotational Slide: Moves slowly along a curved surface. Deposition is the geological process where sediments, soil, and rocks are dropped or added to Translational Slide: Moves quickly along a landform or landmass. a flat or weak plane beneath. It happens when wind, water, ice, or gravity lose 4. Flows energy and can no longer carry their load, causing These are fluid-like movements of sediment: materials to settle. Slurry Flows: Contain 20–40% water; How Does Deposition Happen? water-saturated and common in wet regions. Deposition occurs when the transporting agent slows down or stops. The energy level affects Granular Flows: Contain 0–20% water; what gets deposited: behave like fluids due to air mixing, not water. Large, heavy particles settle first. 5. Solifluction Small, light particles travel farther before settling. A type of slow flow (creep) in cold regions with permafrost. Types of Deposition: Happens during summer thaw. A. Water Deposition Forms terrace-like landforms or stone Rivers deposit sediments as they slow, rivers. forming deltas and floodplains. Deposits and Landforms from Mass Wasting: Oceans create beaches and barrier islands through wave action. Soil Creep: Causes tilted fences, curved trees, and shallow depressions. Lakes and melting glaciers deposit sediments, forming moraines. Rock Fall: Creates talus slopes and rock glaciers. B. Wind Deposition (Aeolian) Volcanoes (oceanic vs continental) – e.g., Pacific Ring of Fire Forms sand dunes from wind-blown sand. Trenches & earthquakes (oceanic Creates loess deposits from fine silt, vs oceanic or continental) which build fertile soils. Transform Boundaries C. Ice Deposition (Glacial) Plates slide past each other horizontally. As glaciers melt, they drop rocks and debris (glacial till). Causes earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault). Creates landforms like moraines, drumlins, and eskers. Crust is neither created nor destroyed. D. Gravity Deposition (Mass Wasting) Subduction Zones From landslides, rockfalls, and Occur at convergent boundaries. mudflows. The denser plate sinks into the mantle Materials slide and settle downhill, beneath the less dense one. reshaping land quickly. Old crust is destroyed and melted back PLATE TECTONICS into the mantle. Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains how Earth’s surface is shaped by the Balances the creation of new crust from movement of large slabs of Earth’s lithosphere seafloor spreading. (crust + upper mantle) called tectonic plates. Connection to Earthquakes These plates float on the asthenosphere, a semi-molten layer beneath them. Earthquakes happen due to the stress from moving plates: Plates move due to convection currents in the mantle. Divergent – tension causes shallow quakes. Movement causes earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and other Convergent – compression causes landforms. powerful quakes. Transform – plates grind and slip, Types of Plate Boundaries releasing built-up energy suddenly. Divergent Boundaries VOLCANISM Plates move away from each other. A volcano is a vent where magma + gases Magma rises, creating new crust (e.g., escape. Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Once magma reaches the surface, it is Shallow earthquakes and volcanoes called lava. occur. Named after Vulcan, the Roman god of Convergent Boundaries fire. Plates collide with each other. Volcanoes are connected to tectonic activity: Can form: Divergent boundaries: Magma rises as Mountains (continental vs plates pull apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic continental) – e.g., Himalayas Ridge).  Convergent boundaries: Magma forms Basaltic: Thin and fast → from subduction (e.g., Pacific Ring of shield volcanoes Fire). Andesitic: Thick and slow Hotspots: Stationary hot regions in the → composite volcanoes mantle (e.g., Hawaiian Islands). 2. Ash Ring of Fire Fine particles of rock and glass. A volcanically active zone circling the Can damage lungs, aircraft, and Pacific Ocean. crops. Caused by subduction of oceanic plates Travels far with the wind. under continental plates. 3. Volcanic Gases Includes major earthquakes and volcanoes. Released during eruptions. Example: Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, Common gases: and the Andes region. H₂O (water vapor) TUPES OF VOLCANO CO₂ (carbon dioxide) Shield volcanoes have wide, gentle slopes SO₂ (sulfur dioxide) and are formed by the eruption of fluid basaltic lava that spreads over large areas. H₂S (hydrogen sulfide) example of a shield volcano is Mauna Can cause acid rain and climate Loa in Hawaii. effects. Composite volcanoes, also called 4. Pyroclastic Flows stratovolcanoes, are steep and cone- shaped. They are built from alternating Deadly, fast-moving clouds of layers of lava flows and pyroclastic gas, ash, and debris. materials. These volcanoes usually erupt Can travel at hundreds of km/h andesitic lava, which is thicker and more and incinerate everything in their viscous. example is Mayon Volcano in path. the Philippines. EARTHQUAKE Cinder cone volcanoes are small, steep- sided structures formed by the explosive An earthquake is a natural phenomenon that ejection of pyroclastic materials like occurs when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is cinders and ash. These volcanoes can suddenly released due to the movement of erupt various types of lava and are tectonic plates. This release of energy causes typically the simplest form of volcano. An seismic waves that travel through the Earth, example is Smith Volcano in the resulting in ground vibrations that can range from Philippines. mild tremors to severe shaking. 1. Lava Faults – These are fractures in the Earth’s crust where blocks of rock have moved Molten rock flowing out of a past each other. Most earthquakes occur volcano. along these faults. Viscosity depends on temperature Epicenter – The point on the Earth’s and composition. surface directly above the focus of the  earthquake. It is usually where the Tension – Plates pull apart (creates rift strongest shaking is felt. valleys). Focus (Hypocenter) – The point inside Shear – Plates slide past each other the Earth where the earthquake originates. (causes quakes). Tectonic Plates – The Earth’s outer shell, or lithosphere, is divided into several large pieces called tectonic plates, which slowly Types of Orogenesis: move on the semi-fluid asthenosphere. Convergent Boundaries – Plates collide Seismic Waves – These are the waves of (e.g., Himalayas). energy released during an earthquake. Continental Collision – Two land plates They cause the ground to vibrate. Types collide (e.g., Appalachians). include: Subduction Zones – One plate slides P-Waves (Primary Waves): The fastest beneath another (e.g., Andes). waves; travel through solids, liquids, and gases. Types of Orogenesis: S-Waves (Secondary Waves): Slower Convergent Boundaries – Plates collide than P-waves; travel only through solids. (e.g., Himalayas). Surface Waves: Move along the Earth's Continental Collision – Two land plates surface and typically cause the most collide (e.g., Appalachians). damage. Subduction Zones – One plate slides Earthquake Hazards beneath another (e.g., Andes). An earthquake hazard refers to any physical CRUSTAL DEFORMATION phenomenon caused by an earthquake that can Crustal deformation is the bending, breaking, or cause damage or disrupt daily life. These are flowing of Earth’s crust caused by stress from classified as primary or secondary hazards. tectonic forces. It reshapes the Earth's surface and MOUNTAIN BUILDING (OROGENISIS) forms mountains, folds, and faults. Orogenesis is the process of mountain formation Stress and Strain due to tectonic forces acting on the Earth’s crust. Stress is the force applied to a rock over an area. Tectonic Plates – Large, moving pieces of It causes rocks to deform. Earth’s lithosphere. Strain is how a rock responds to stress—it's the Mountain Ranges – Long stretches of change in shape or size. elevated land formed by tectonic activity. Types of Stress: Compression happens when rocks are Uplift – Crust is pushed upward when pushed together. This can lead to folding plates collide. or faulting. Erosion – Wind, water, and ice wear down Tension occurs when rocks are pulled mountains. apart, causing stretching or thinning. Forces: Shear stress pushes rocks in opposite Compression – Plates push together horizontal directions, which can cause (forms mountains). twisting or sliding. Types of Strain: Compressional Stress pushes rocks together, shortening and thickening the Elastic strain is temporary. The rock crust. It causes reverse or thrust faults, returns to its original shape once the stress common at convergent boundaries. is removed—like a rubber band. Shear Stress causes rocks to slide past Plastic (ductile) strain is permanent each other horizontally. This leads to bending without breaking. It often happens strike-slip faults, which occur at transform deeper in the crust and causes folds. boundaries. Brittle strain occurs when the rock breaks Types of Faults: or fractures. This happens near the surface where rocks are cooler and more brittle. A Normal Fault happens when the hanging wall moves downward relative to Geological Structures the footwall. It’s caused by tension and is typical at divergent boundaries. Folds are bends in rock layers caused by compressional forces. A Reverse Fault (or Thrust Fault) occurs when the hanging wall moves upward due An anticline is an arch-like fold with the to compression. These are found at oldest rocks at the center. convergent boundaries. A syncline is a trough-like fold with the A Strike-Slip Fault involves horizontal youngest rocks at the center. motion along the fault line. It’s caused by Faults are breaks in rock layers where movement shear stress and is common at transform has occurred due to stress. boundaries like the San Andreas Fault. A normal fault occurs when the hanging Folding wall moves downward due to tension. Folding is the bending of rock layers under A reverse fault happens when the hanging compressional stress. Instead of breaking, rocks wall moves upward due to compression. deform smoothly into curved shapes. This occurs deep in the crust where rocks are hot, soft, and A strike-slip fault involves horizontal ductile. movement caused by shear stress. An example is the San Andreas Fault. FAULTING AND FOLDING It occurs when rocks experience slow, steady pressure and are buried deep enough to bend Faulting is the process where the Earth's crust rather than break. breaks and rock layers shift along fractures called faults. This movement causes displacement of Parts of a Fold: rocks on either side of the break. An Anticline is an upward-arching fold with the oldest rocks at its center. Faulting happens due to tectonic stress from plate A Syncline is a downward fold or trough movements. These forces deform the crust until it with the youngest rocks at the core. breaks. Limbs are the sides of the fold. Types of Tectonic Stress and Related Faults: The Axial Plane divides the fold Tensional Stress pulls rocks apart, symmetrically. thinning and stretching the crust. It causes normal faults, usually found at divergent boundaries.  The Fold Axis is the line formed by the intersection of the axial plane with the rock layers. Types of Folds: A Symmetrical Fold has limbs of equal length and angle. An Asymmetrical Fold has limbs of unequal length; one side is steeper. An Overturned Fold has one limb tilted beyond vertical, appearing upside down. A Recumbent Fold lies nearly horizontal with both limbs flat. An Isoclinal Fold has parallel limbs, formed under intense compression.