PR Notes U1-U4 PDF

U1L1: Research and Its Importance Human innovation is made possible by doing research. Research allows people to expand their knowledge on simple curiosities and to apply the newfound Basic research serves the purpose of satisfying human curiosities. If the...

U1L1: Research and Its Importance Human innovation is made possible by doing research. Research allows people to expand their knowledge on simple curiosities and to apply the newfound Basic research serves the purpose of satisfying human curiosities. If the answer to your common question does not have direct application to real- knowledge creating products that can make lives easier and more comfortable. life instances, then you are thinking about a question that is best answered This lesson gives the definition, types, and importance of research. by doing basic research. Applied research is done for specific purposes and applications. If the Defining Research answer to your common question has an immediate application in real life, the systematic study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and then you are thinking of a question that is best answered by conducting reach new conclusions.” Being a systematic process with the goal of applied research. establishing facts, doing research goes beyond a simple question-and-answer type of inquiry. It requires following a logically-ordered procedure that often starts with a question and ends with an answer that is supported by facts. Importance of Research Research begins with a question. This question may have been formulated based on everyday life experiences, individual curiosities, or random In general, doing research is important because: observations. Once an individual engages in the process of gathering It helps us understand the world better. Research often begins with a information to answer a question, he/she is already conducting simple simple question that is drawn from everyday experiences or observations. research. Gathering information to answer any question that sparks interest contributes to a broader understanding of the world. The process of starting with an observation, developing this observation into a question, and undertaking a certain process to answer this question is the It allows us to find answers to problems. The systematic procedure of process of doing research. doing research provides a logical structure of finding answers to problems. These answers may come in the form of new ideas, as in the case of basic research, or practical solutions, as in the case of applied research. Types of Research 1. Basic Research It enables us to evaluate our answers to different problems. The According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009), basic research is “an solutions generated from research can be the source of more questions. investigation that adds to the knowledge of a particular area of study.” Doing further research on an existing answer can lead to a broader O’Leary (2004) also refers to basic research as “pure research.” Basic understanding of how this answer is a corresponding solution to a research is primarily undertaken to gain a broader understanding of a particular problem. particular problem or phenomenon. The result of a basic research may not necessarily be directly applicable to real-world settings, but it can be a source of new ideas, concepts, or theories. U1L2: Research Process and Ethics Examples of basic research include answers to curiosities, such as the role Research is a highly systematic process. With this description, we can think of the government in providing basic social services, the therapeutic effects that research consists of several steps that must be done in a highly organized of pet ownership, and studying parenting styles across different Asian cultures. At this level, these examples are mostly theoretical and are not manner in order for the entire research project to succeed. These directly applicable as solutions to real-life problems and concerns. characteristics set the research process differently from the usual investigation that we do. A researcher must carefully follow the standard 2. Applied Research steps involved in the research process in order to properly accomplish the research. In contrast to basic research, applied research is “an investigation that does have obvious and immediate applications” (Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009). According to O’Leary (2004), “knowledge gained from Characteristics of Research applied research is meant to find solutions to actual problems.” 1. Controlled Examples of applied research include medical research (e.g., the Research is controlled and manipulated in order to come up with a valid effectiveness of vaccines in preventing infectious diseases), political result. Extraneous variables must be controlled to ensure that they science research (e.g., the effectiveness of mass media in electoral will not influence the results in any way. campaign), and market research (e.g. the effectiveness of social media advertisements in increasing sales). These examples of applied research 2. Rigorous have their corresponding fields of application, thus making them directly Following stringent procedures in finding out the answers to questions useful in real life. is what makes a research rigorous. Certain steps in the research process require a lot of work and effort in order to ensure the validity of results and compliance to research ethics. Basic research and applied research are related to each other. Still, basic research can be conducted independently from applied research since it is 3. Systematic more theoretical than practical. The knowledge generated from basic research Research must follow a structured plan. This plan should contain a can be used as the foundational ideas for applied research. step-by-step procedure in solving the research problem. Researchers must faithfully follow the research process to make sure that there will For example, mathematical research such as the development of number be accurate results and a reliable conclusion upon completion of the formulas and sequences constitutes basic research. This mathematical research. knowledge can be used in the development of new technology, such as computer codes, which then constitutes applied research. 4. Valid Research must only involve data and results that are correct and Another example is the development of medicines. The development of a verifiable not just by the researcher but also by other people. Validity particular medicine for a specific disease demonstrates the use of applied also refers to how sound the concepts and theories the research is research. However, knowledge about the chemical components of the said medicine, reactions of these chemical components with one another, and the based on, and how well-founded the conclusions are drawn. nature of the disease being treated are products of basic research. 5. Empirical Share the publication. Research must be completely based on hard evidence which the researcher personally collected from observation and/or real-life experiences. Once all the results of the study are consolidated and written into a final research manuscript, the researchers are obliged to present and share their findings with the public or the rest of the community. The Research Process Mostly, researches can be presented in the form of a poster or oral presentations during organized conferences. Researchers may also The research process refers to the overall steps needed to accomplish the publish their work in journals or any form of media that allows their work entire research according to a scientific method. It can be divided into three to be accessed by other people. phases: research proposal, research activity, and written content. Specifically, the following are the steps of the scientific research process: Principles of Research Ethics Research ethics is important because it serves as a guide for all researchers to RESEARCH PROPOSAL keep the integrity of their research. It refers to all the practices that must be The research proposal phase is the first phase of the entire research process. followed by the researcher to ensure that the steps of the research process are Most of the time, it requires the researcher to identify the actual research adhered to with utmost integrity and the set standards agreed upon by the problem that he or she wants to address. It involves three steps: community of researchers all over the world are upheld. The following enumerates the ethical principles that should be exemplified in the conduct of Identify the general study area. research: The researcher needs to select a research topic that is within his or her subject area of interest. The field of interest may further branch out to a 1. Honesty wide range of areas. For this reason, it is important for the researcher to Researchers must honestly present information on research methods and pick a study area to explore that will serve as the general field of focus procedures, data, and results. Researchers must not falsify and distort the of the research. data to deceive the public or to attain a desired result. Choose a research topic. 2. Objectivity The researcher needs to start observing the surroundings or Researchers should remove any form of bias in all stages of research. All environment. Through keen observation, processes or things that require observations and data collected must not be changed in any way to agree improvement can be identified. In identifying a research topic, it is with the goals of the researchers. important that the researchers choose a topic that can address real-life problems they usually encounter in the academe and society. This step 3. Prudence also considers the significance of the chosen topic in the general Researchers must be careful in evaluating their own work. field of focus, whether it is worth the time and effort to conduct the research or not. 4. Responsible Publication Researchers must publish the results of their research and share it with Formulate plans and methodology. other people for their academic and practical contributions. Research methodology refers to the set of methods, procedures, or 5. Confidentiality techniques that will be used for the overall handling of data about a Researchers must treat with confidentiality the information of anyone topic. It is highly relevant in research, as it serves as the blueprint in involved in the research project, especially that of the respondents. the conduct of the study. This step also considers the schedule, budget, and feasibility of the research. 6. Respect for Intellectual Property Researchers must respect patents, copyrights, and other forms of RESEARCH ACTIVITIES intellectual property. It is a criminal act for anyone to plagiarize. The research activities phase includes all the necessary procedures needed for data collection and analysis. The following are the steps of this phase: 7. Social Responsibility Researchers must conduct research studies that would be beneficial to Collect data. / Data Collection society. Data collection comes directly after polishing every detail of the 8. Anti-discrimination research methodology. It is a critical step as this establishes the Researchers must avoid discrimination against any form of social labels accuracy of data that will determine the conclusion of the study. Data like sex, gender, religion, and culture. can be collected in several ways: surveys, polls, interviews, Delphi Technique, Focus Groups, Financial Reports, Sales Reports, Gov. Reports & Internet. The research process is an endless cycle. It does not stop when the Analyze and interpret data. / Data Analysis results are published and shared with the rest of the community. Your Data analysis refers to the process of extracting the essential current results can still be improved and modified by future research information needed to answer the research questions from the on the same topic. collected data. This step can be done through the use of statistical methods or by deriving themes from the gathered data. The results of Research is characterized by a systematic inquiry that is guided by the analysis must then be interpreted and discussed with the support of scientific methods. related literature. The research process involves three phases: research proposal, WRITTEN CONTENT research activities, and written content. The written content phase of the research process involves the process of Research ethics refers to all the practices that must be followed by the consolidating all the information from the data analysis. researcher in order to ensure that all steps of the research process will Write the conclusion. be adhered to with utmost integrity. Conclusion is the part of the study derived from the analysis and interpretation of the collected data. This serves as the direct answer to the research questions posed at the start of the project. In this step, the researchers need to process the essential information to form the final conclusion of the research.  U1L3: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Among the goals of quantitative research is to verify hypotheses and Definition of Research establish relationships using measurable and observable data. Some Research is defined as the systematic process of gathering information to examples of quantitative research topics are: answer a question (O’Leary, 2004). As a systematic process, it follows an Effects of physical exercise on sleep quality ordered sequence of steps to arrive at an answer. Preferences of college students towards computer operating systems Impact of social media use on rising fashion trends This ordered sequence of steps in the research process is part of the research design. The formulation of a research design is an integral part of the research Main strategies of inquiry for quantitative research are surveys and process. A research design is a systematic plan of conducting research. It is experiments, which use systematic data collection methods, such as important because it serves as the overall guide of the researcher throughout survey questionnaires. Quantitative research uses closed-ended the research process. questions. The researcher adopts an objective standpoint in relation to the participants of the study in order to ensure the validity and reliability Types of Research of the data and its analysis. There are three main types of research: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed 3. Mixed Methods Research methods (Creswell, 2009). These research types also essentially form a A mixed methods research employs the elements of both qualitative and research design. Distinctions are often made between qualitative and quantitative research in terms of strategies, methods, and focus. However, quantitative research. A mixed methods research incorporates elements of both Creswell (2009) notes that a mixed methods research is not simply a qualitative and quantitative research. combination of the elements of qualitative and quantitative research. Doing mixed methods research also entails ensuring the complementarity of both Qualitative and quantitative research are often distinguished on the basis of qualitative and quantitative approaches. their focus: qualitative research focuses on words along with its construction, meanings, and interpretations. On the other hand, quantitative research In terms of the sequence of methods, mixed methods research may be focuses on observable and measurable data that are usually expressed in sequential, concurrent, or transformative. According to Creswell (2009), a numerical form and analyzed through statistical techniques. sequential mixed methods research is when the researcher “seeks to 1. Qualitative Research elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method with another method.” A sequential mixed methods research may either begin Creswell (2009) defines qualitative research as “a means for exploring and qualitatively and the findings may be generalized quantitatively, or the understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or sequence may also proceed with quantitative research being expounded by human problem.” Qualitative research asks open-ended questions to qualitative research. On the other hand, a concurrent mixed methods extract meanings, perceptions, and interpretations. These meanings, research proceeds with qualitative and quantitative methods and data being perceptions, and interpretations cannot be acquired and analyzed without used and collected at the same time. A mixed methods research may also proper reference of the researcher to the context, setting, or experiences of be transformative. A mixed methods research may also be transformative. It the participants of the study. can contain elements of either concurrent or sequential mixed methods research. Some examples of qualitative research topics are: Perspectives of teachers on the implementation of anti-bullying policies Choosing a Research Design: Advantages and Disdvntgs Cultural practices of an indigenous group and their respective meanings Perceptions on the importance of freedom of speech Given the different types of research designs, a decision must be made on what Interpretations of political speeches is the most appropriate design to use for one’s own research topic. Central to one’s considerations is the nature of the research problem. Assess which Common among the examples listed above is the focus on words, among qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research is the likely focus meanings, interpretations, and perspectives. Qualitative research uses of the research problem. The advantages and disadvantages of each type of different strategies of inquiry such as phenomenology, grounded theory, research must also be considered. ethnography, case studies, and narratives. Specific data collection methods include interviews, focus group discussions, and content analysis. Gray et al. (2007) summarized qualitative techniques as “relying on words, Quantitative Qualitative especially nouns and adjectives that convey what exists.” Advantages It provides a richer The findings are Data Collection Methods (4): and deeper reflective of the 1. Interview understanding of the population due to the > Structured: prepared questions to ask respondents phenomenon. large number of > Unstructured: casual talk, don’t need to prepare questions The participants can participants. provide deeper, more The use of statistical 2. Observation detailed, and specific methods in the collection > Participatory: immersed or actualize the experience yourself answers to the and analysis of data > Non-participatory: observed from a far place questions. gives validity and reliability to the findings. 3. FGD (Focus Group Discussion) - cluster, divide research respondents - conduct a group discussion where each respondents will be Disadvantages The number of The depth of the answers divided, di pwede one cluster participants (sample from the participants is size) is smaller limited due to the large 4. Discourse / Library Research compared to sample size and the use of - exchanging of ideas quantitative research. closed-ended questions. The narrative findings Data expressed as from a small number of numbers may not always 2. Quantitive Research capture the complexities participants are not Quantitative research is defined as “a means for testing objective theories reflective of the whole of the phenomenon under by examining the relationship among variables” (Creswell, 2009). These population. study. variables are observable, measurable, and may be expressed in numbers. Quantitative research makes use of statistical knowledge in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative techniques “use numbers to describe what exists” (Gray et al., 2007). U2L1: Overview of Qualitative Research 5. Empathic Neutrality Characteristics of Qualitative Research While it is impossible to become completely neutral, the researcher must Qualitative research has some distinct characteristics that set it apart from be keen in observing neutrality while gathering data and writing the quantitative research. It is important for researchers to understand the nature of findings. A qualitative research must be neutral and must not manifest qualitative research in considering the research design, data collection, and the personal judgment and opinion of the researcher. data analysis. The following are the characteristics of qualitative research: For example, it would be extremely difficult for a researcher not to judge 1. Naturalistic Qualitative research is a form of natural inquiry because it focuses on a toddler who is more naughty and aggressive as compared to more studying its subject in a natural setting. This trait sets qualitative behaved toddlers. This scenario illustrates the difficulties of being research apart from most quantitative research that tries to control the completely neutral while collecting and analyzing the data. independent variables and see how it can affect the dependent 5. Flexibility variables. For example, if a researcher wants to determine the behavior Because of the holistic nature of qualitative research and the level of of a toddler without adult supervision, the researcher must focus on immersion of the researcher, new objectives or questions can emerge observing the toddler in his/her natural setting without manipulating any as the research progresses. The initial plan may possibly be modified or part of the toddler’s environment. abandoned depending on the new data that comes in. The researcher 2. Inductive must be open to change and must avoid rigidity in pursuit of new Qualitative research utilizes inductive analysis. Inductive analysis is a knowledge. qualitative approach that derives primary research findings by looking for patterns or themes from the collected data. In this For example, a researcher initially plans to know the behavior of toddlers approach, researchers usually start their research process with specific when there is no adult supervision. While observing the toddlers, the observations, then form questions along the way in order to explore the researcher noticed that the toddlers talk more when they are data to come up with a generalization or a theory that explains it. unsupervised. The researcher may then opt to narrow down his/her research from just understanding the behavior of toddlers to This is also called the bottom-up approach. It is important to take note understanding why they talk more when there are no adults around. that in this approach, most hypotheses or generalizations continuously change based on the flow of observation and objectives of the researcher. Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning Strengths Weaknesses Paradigm or Theory It utilizes qualitative data that It utilizes a small sample size; Generalizations Predictions complement quantitative data. hence, the conclusion cannot be generalized for the entire Data collection is cost-efficient. population. Observation or Experiment Multiple methods for gathering Data collection is usually 3. Holistic data can be used on sensitive time-consuming and labor- Holistic perspective focuses on the entirety of the phenomenon. With subjects. intensive. this approach, every piece of information is treated with care in order to paint the whole picture. Qualitative research tends to create a Collected data provides detailed Complete neutrality is information in explaining difficult to achieve. Most of narrative regarding the whole system it is focusing on rather than complex issues. the time, data can be dissecting each part and knowing its effect on the entire system. affected by the researcher’s Results are based on opinion and personal For example, a researcher may gain more understanding of toddler judgment. observations in a natural setting. behavior by observing both male and female groups. The observations on male groups might not be directly applicable to the female groups Qualitative data can be more and vice versa. With this, the researcher must consider that, in order to difficult to analyze because understand the entire phenomenon, each set of data can be both right of nonuniformity in the and wrong depending on the group being observed in the study observed data. 4. Personal Immersion Results can be unpredictable Qualitative research mostly requires personal immersion of the since changes in objectives researcher in the natural setting. With this, the researcher is required to can happen based on the become part of the observed group in order to acquire more in- flow of the research process. depth data for the research. However, a common problem with this trait of qualitative research is the frequent presence of biases. The researcher must be aware that his/her perception of personal experiences while in immersion must not affect the actual observation in the field. For example, a researcher may have experienced difficulty in taking care of a toddler; however, the results of the research should not be affected by his/her experiences. The findings must still be based on the subject being observed and not on the personal experiences of the researcher himself.  U2L2: Types of Qualitative Research U2L3: Relevance of Qualitative Research Qualitative research is very useful in documenting human experiences, Just like any other form of research, qualitative research is essential to society behaviors, and practices. Specifically, qualitative research is particularly useful as it helps in the generation of new knowledge. Qualitative research is widely in answering the why and how questions. used in different fields, may it be in the natural or social sciences. Qualitative research is beneficial in documenting human experiences, behaviors, and Types of Qualitative Research practices. It is particularly useful in answering why and how questions. 1. Historical Research / Historical Review Building Knowledge using Qualitative Research focuses on the past and its implication (?) or indication (?) on the present, and future phenomena Knowledge refers to facts generated from objective insights together with the findings processed by the human brain. It can be generated in various ways, like conducting scientific experiments, doing field observations, and Historical review is a type of qualitative research that aims to describe interacting with other people. Doing qualitative research is a way to create past events to fully understand the current patterns needed for knowledge. making future decisions. This aims to answer questions that are merely based on hypothetical ideas, and then utilize available resources to test the Qualitative research is one of the most effective tools in gathering facts about idea. societal patterns, human behaviors, and human interaction, among other social variables. It is useful in validating points, ensuring truthfulness, and This research design can be used to analyze the possible evolution of maintaining accuracy. It is also crucial in finding possible explanations for human society based on comparative historical research on human different events and phenomena happening in the human environment. Most behavior, hierarchy, and status, as well as social characteristics using past importantly, it deepens our understanding of human experiences. and present data. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 2. Ethnography / Ethnographic Research Qualitative research equips academics, professionals, and even ordinary culture of certain groups people with knowledge about society that would allow them to improve their lives. For professional workers, qualitative research is relevant in the discussion In ethnographic study, the researcher is immersed into the natural of experiences and themes pertinent to one's professional field. For the public, setting of the subjects for a long period of time. The primary purpose of qualitative research is essential in helping them understand things around their this design is to understand the culture and experiences of a group of society. These activities allow people to learn and have a better understanding people in their natural environment. This research design is useful for a of the world; thus, qualitative research is a useful tool in the social sciences by social worker who wants to understand why girls as young as 13 years old facilitating learnings about people coming from different fields and social are getting married to older men in a community in Palawan. backgrounds. 3. Phenomenology / Phenomenological Research The role of qualitative research in understanding society comes in different essence of human existence, life experiences forms. It can be used independently from quantitative research, or it can also be used to support quantitative research in the pursuit of mixed methods Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research that deals with the research. description of participants' lived experiences of a specific event. This For example, qualitative research can be independently used in the discipline research design uses interviews, observation, and surveys in gathering data of history. The use of qualitative research techniques is necessary to from the sample. This research design can be used by a team leader of a understand and analyze historical knowledge. Historical events can be sales team in order to understand the emotions of his team members understood and interpreted using different qualitative methods. Methods such whenever they are not reaching their quota. as interviews, textual analysis, and document analysis help in dealing with factual evidence, such as historical text records, physical remains of historic 4. Action Research sites, historical photographs, or even ancient artifacts. Thus, the use of immediate problems needing immediate solutions qualitative research in the study of history allows society to understand the nature and origin of humans. 5. Case Study Case study deals with an in-depth look at one specific subject. In a case An example of the complementarity of qualitative and quantitative research is study, the subject can be a specific person. The subject can also be in the in political science or sociological studies. For example, quantitative research form of an entire business, organization, town, or a city. Usually, data are uses statistical techniques to gather data on voter preferences and approval collected from various sources and experience trials, then compiled to form ratings of government officials. Qualitative research can complement a bigger conclusion. quantitative research in gathering in-depth explanations behind voter preferences and ratings. Moreover, while quantitative research can statistically 6. Grounded Theory measure the poverty index in a particular city or province, it is qualitative determining the cause of a phenomenon research that can provide real-life context behind these poverty indices. Grounded theory aims to explain a phenomenon and the evolution of its Overall, qualitative research is an efficient way of understanding changes in course of action. Most of the time, grounded theory deals with research society because of its inclination to human experience and context. It can help in understanding substantial experiences in society to formulate solutions to topics that look at a large number of subjects. At the same time, grounded different societal concerns. theory forms theoretical models based on published data. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN THE MEDIA COMMUNICATION 7. Narrative Review changes in human behavior One of the most common applications of qualitative research is in media, Narrative review is usually being used to document changes in human particularly in news segments. Qualitative research helps in the generation of perspective or behavior. It may also involve events or phenomena in the news content. Primarily, qualitative research techniques are present in the following: (1) getting information about the topic, (2) building a good rapport society. The narrative analysis can be extended over certain periods of time with the interviewee, and (3) asking the appropriate interview questions. Given that tries to update the data as it happens. In a narrative review, the this role of qualitative research in media, this indicates that doing qualitative researcher needs to identify a certain starting point and assess the situation research is necessary for raising social consciousness among the public. as it develops into a full-blown story. This research design can be used in defining buyer personas, which can be utilized to develop marketing QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN BUSINESS innovations that appeal to a target market. Narrative review is also a good Qualitative research is also relevant in business. It is essential for business method for building a bibliographical documentation of the life of a relevant success. All successful companies invest in research, may it be those who are personality in society. This is particularly helpful for historians. producing consumable goods or offering services. First, research is vital in product development. Studying consumer behavior uses qualitative research so that companies can adjust to the different trends in the market. Second, qualitative research helps secure an advantage over different competitors in the market. It allows businesspeople to formulate the most appropriate marketing efforts to boost the profitability of their products and services. In summary, qualitative research provides relevant knowledge in crafting sound business strategies to achieve the right commercial image and to increase profitability. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PUBLIC HEALTH Qualitative research is useful in public health through its role in the documentation and analysis of public health issues. Qualitative research techniques can establish and understand patterns in the transmission of diseases in society by looking at the different factors that contribute to it. In general, qualitative research allows us to understand how human behavior, daily practices, and experiences contribute to the overall state of public health in society. For example, the field of epidemiology focuses on the transmission of diseases from one person to another. Qualitative research techniques such as interviews and focus group discussions can be used in epidemiological studies to analyze how human behavior and practices contribute to disease transmission and mortality rates. Qualitative research in the study of history allows society to understand the nature and origin of humans. Qualitative research is an efficient way of understanding changes in society because of its inclination to human experience and context. Qualitative research in media communication is necessary for raising social consciousness among the public. Qualitative research provides relevant knowledge in crafting sound business strategies to achieve the right commercial image and to increase profitability. Qualitative research is useful in public health through its role in the documentation and analysis of public health issues.  U3L1: Identifying a Qualitative Research Problem Identifying a Research Problem For example, in a business research, you can easily identify what the research is all about by reading the title “An Ethnographic Study on Decision-Making of Research studies always start with a problem to solve. Ellis and Levy (2008) Female Online Business Owners in Manila.” A study aligned with social define a research problem as the most important part of the process. Since it is sciences may explore “A Case Study of E-Learning Schools in the Province of the central part of the study, all parts of the paper revolve around it. Its title, Pampanga,” while a study aligned with science may explore “A Historical Study background, objectives, related studies and literature, methods, data, and of Coding for Mobile Applications.” As you can observe, the working titles are results as well as the derived conclusions and recommendations; everything is presented following the guide questions in building a conventional title. In this centered on the research problem. way, your target audience will be able to identify what the research is about. NARROWING DOWN A GENERAL TOPIC RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH Research usually starts with identifying a general topic. Sometimes it is derived from the school’s research agenda, or you may be given the liberty to choose a The relevance of the research describes the reasons or justifications for the topic of your interest. Either way, for you to have a topic, the specific topic conduct of the study. It is usually included in the introductory part of the must always be anchored to the general topic. Hence, topics are important research paper. While all topics of interest can be researched, there are guides to do the right research, which are interesting, vital, and compelling selected topics that are academically acceptable for research. The criteria for a (McBride, 1994). relevant topic may be set by the adviser or the panel. Some students will state some personal benefits and gains in doing their research. While this may be Writing research studies has limitations, and focusing your topic on a specific realistic, this reason is not academically acceptable as a justification for area of knowledge will help in meeting the constraints of the research, such as conducting the research. time, budget, and materials. If the study is set to be done within a specific time frame, then you have to find a problem that can be answered within that period. Academically acceptable justification of conducting research studies include In coming up with a research problem, you need to do preliminary readings on the following among others (Lincoln and Denzin 2005): the general topic. Once you have a large number of reading materials, you can its usefulness in the scientific advancement of the chosen area of then identify the subtopics. You can use these subtopics to find similarities and knowledge differences, and most importantly, the gaps in information (Schneider and importance to the community or society Whitehead, 2012). The gaps in information, also known as “research gaps,” are its practical application to present issues or problems an essential part in finding a research problem since it asks the question: “What is it about my topic that needs further investigation?” or “What information is still missing about my topic?” The research problem is the central basis for the other parts of the research. The researcher then arrives on further questions, such as “If I choose to fill in this research gap, how am I supposed to do it?” or “What method(s) and The research process starts with identifying a broad topic of interest materials can I use to answer this problem?” With this, the researcher narrows and narrowing it down to a more specific topic. down the topic and comes up with a well-established research problem. Qualitative research deals with understanding, describing, and QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM drawing out meaning from nonnumerical information. A research problem is considered to be qualitative when the nature of answering it is on making meanings from nonnumerical information since The research title describes what the research is about and is based analyzing numerical data is the focus of quantitative research. Qualitative on the statement of the research problem. research problems are usually observed in case studies of experiential and cultural contexts among others. Answering qualitative research problems can The relevance of the research describes the importance and also be done through interpreting and analyzing information from interviews, justification for conducting the research. observations, historical and cultural texts and artifacts, and other primary or secondary sources (Lester and Lester 2012; Ballenger 2004). Here are a few examples of qualitative research topics that you can base the research problem on: U3L2: Writing a Research Statement for Accounting - Lending practices and credit management of a bank Business and Management - Business ethics and morality in crisis management Qualitative Research Environmental and Earth Science - Role of reducing carbon footprint Health Science - Obstacles in propagating preventive medicine Research Problem and Research Questions Education - Peer pressure in an inclusive classroom Social Sciences - Historical revisionism in a third-world country For you to start writing, you should be able to distinguish a research problem Humanities - Rise and fall of theater houses from a research question. A research problem is the statement of the problem that you wish to resolve in your study. A research problem is a general RESEARCH TITLE expression of what you want to investigate. Basically, this should be able to Since there are no concrete guidelines for constructing research titles and summarize everything about your research: topic, population and sample, different fields practice their own way of crafting titles (Haggan 2004), variables, location, objectives, and methods. Usually, research problems are conventional methods suggest that one way of coming up with a good research written in the declarative form. On the other hand, research questions are title is basing it on the identified research problem and constructing it using the specific inquiries that are enumerated to answer the research problem. fewest possible words that will still convey what the research is about. Most Research questions break down the problem into smaller parts and are written research paper titles include a rephrasing of a research problem and the main in interrogative form. This is an important part of your study since it should be method or theory used for answering the problem (Lester and Lester 2012). A guiding and dictating the flow of your research in resolving the research good guide in writing a working study title is by answering the following problem. questions: What type of research will it use? Qualitative Research Problem What is the study all about? Who is involved in the research? Qualitative research seeks to explore or describe a phenomenon that is usually Where will the study happen? unique to a specific context. Unlike the quantitative research that tries to generalize observations through models and fitting it to existing theories and laws, qualitative research tries to assign meanings on the experiences, knowledge, and belief that people have in order to understand them. Instead of asking how one variable affects the other or establishing a cause and The general purpose of your study - This can be answered by going back to effect relationship, qualitative research questions focus on understanding the the statement of the research problem and the research question. stories that relate to the relationships being observed (DeCarlo 2018; Babbie 2014; Newman et al. 1998). The population involved in the study - These are the people who qualify as participants for observation or as sources for data collection. For example, a Since qualitative research requires a personal immersion, the research study on the experiences of farmers in the Philippines would require rice statement should help you extract what you have observed. The questions that farmers in Central Luzon as a specific population to be studied. you have to formulate should be answerable by your observations, reflections, and others’ perceptions. Time element and duration of the study - Any study has to be time-bound. Indicating the duration of the study helps in setting boundaries in terms of Edmonds and Kennedy (2016) expounded that qualitative research should be data collection and analysis. For example, a comparative study on the anchored to the basic types of inquiry for it to be testable. They also outlined economic growth of the Philippines will only cover data that occurred in the things to consider in formulating qualitative research questions: post-war period. 1. Questions should be expressed starting with what, why, or how. Topics or ideas covered in the study - Based on the general research 2. Questions should be open-ended. It should not be answerable by a yes or a problem, the scope of the study can also elaborate on more specific topics or no. ideas that are part of the discussion. For example, if a research problem is 3. The stated questions should be reflective. generally centered on natural calamities in the Philippines, a more specific 4. A central question should be identified so that the research will have a aspect of this topic would be a focus on the occurrence of typhoons. determined “central focus.” 5. Follow-up questions that would aim to narrow down the central question Geographical details - In some studies, geographical boundaries are should be written. important in providing a spatial perspective of the topic for the reader. These geographical boundaries may also reflect the scope of data collection. For Example: example, a research study on poverty in the Philippines may choose to focus It has been observed that in a month rolling stores can gain more income than a on the specific geographical area of selected urban areas instead of covering regular employee. Thus, this study aims to look into the selling techniques of poverty in the whole country. rolling store owners, specifically fishball vendors, that allow them to gain a high return on investment. Theories and methods involved - Identifying theories and methods that will Specifically, it aims to answer the following: be used in the study can help set up the theoretical and methodological 1. How do rolling store owners determine the places they will go to? framework of the study. An example of setting a methodological scope is 2. How do rolling store owners offer their products? indicating that the research problem will only be studied using qualitative 3. How much on a monthly basis do rolling stores earn? methodology even if the topic can also be tackled from a quantitative In formulating your research questions, you have to look at all possibilities of perspective. the problem depending more on the possible experiences, lives, and perspectives of your participants, and less on the available literature to answer your research questions. Limitations The limitations of the study refer to uncontrollable factors that can affect the Characteristics of a Good Research Statement process of conducting the study, specifically on the part of the methodology and results. These could be problems or situations that may arise in any part of the research process. Limitations may come from the methodology itself or the Research statements should be S.M.A.R.T. When you write your researcher’s personal capacities. Methodological limitations can include the questions you have to make sure that it specifically answers the research required number of participants for your research or the lack thereof, the problem. It should be measurable that you could use different tools to sufficiency of references to support claims, data collection, measurement, and create a conclusion. Attainable in a way that it is within the scope of your technique limitations, among others. Personal limitations include language understanding as a researcher. Your questions should also be realistic, and barriers, time constraints, biases, and financial or budgetary limitations (Walker should not need materials that are unavailable or people who are 1993; Lester, and Lester 1999; Wolcott 2008). unreachable for you to answer those questions. Lastly, it should be time bound, making sure that the questions can be answered in a specific time frame. Delimitations Research statements should be researchable. The questions that you The delimitations of a study are boundaries that the researcher sets up based formulate should be researchable or answerable using primary sources that on the identified scope and limitations. This section commonly identifies a can be accessed with the support of printed or electronic materials. Good specific population (i.e., sample size and specific characteristics of the sample questions are answered using various sources, so that a complete and clear population), a specific time limit for conducting the research, the topics and understanding of the phenomenon can be established. ideas that will be included or excluded, the specific geographical locations of the observations, and the specific theories and methods to be used. Each of Research statements should be relevant. Good research statements these parts is accompanied by a discussion of how or why you are setting such should be able to address the questions “so what?” or “what’s next?” and delimitations (Walker 1993; Lester, and Lester 1999; Wolcott 2008). “what is it to the world?” Answering these questions will help you get a clear idea of the direction and impact of your research statement. U3L3: Setting the Scope and Limitation of a Qualitative Research Scope In general terms, the scope of a study is its coverage. It indicates the general boundaries of the study and serves as the basis when setting up the delimitations of the study (Walker 1993; Lester, and Lester 1999; Wolcott 2008). Dividing a broad research topic into more specific subtopics sets the focus of the study. Establishing the scope is necessary to identify the central points of a study. Here are some considerations in identifying the scope of the study: U3L4: Identifying the Significance of a Qualitative U4L1: Relevant Literature Sources for Qualitative Research Topic Research Significance of a Qualitative Research Literature Review A well-executed research study has contributions to the betterment of not only the researcher but also of other people. Contributions of a study may be A literature review is the process of collecting and synthesizing information manifested as additional concepts to the body of knowledge, or concrete from multiple sources. The gathered information for the literature review serves benefits to stakeholders. The contributions of any research study range from the multiple purposes and can be utilized in different parts of the study. This can personal gains of the researcher, to the gains of groups connected to the serve as an overall guide to refine the research questions and objectives of the research, and of the society as a whole through its contribution to solving study, and as a reference for the methodology and discussion of the results of problems and/or providing insights on matters that affect people (Nenty 2009). the study. Because of its value, a literature review must be done in a thorough and comprehensive manner. All the information in the literature review must be The significance of the research section in any research paper describes the pertinent, credible, and contributive to the direction of the study. importance of the study to its stakeholders, that is, whoever may benefit from its outputs. It can be based on the need to address conflicting results of Types of Literature Sources previously published pieces of research, unresolved gaps in information, recommendations from prior studies, and arising interest trends in the field of PRIMARY SOURCES expertise or topic of interest of the researcher (Newman et al. 1997). Primary sources are references that contain information, which were observed or Essentially, identifying the significance of the research provides justifications on witnessed firsthand by the author. Primary sources should be prioritized when why the study needs to be conducted. searching for references for a literature review because they usually contain more advanced information. Primary sources are suited for people, who already have Stakeholders prior knowledge about the topic. There are different types of primary sources: journal articles, video and audio recordings, survey data, and statistical data. Stakeholders can be defined as “a person, individual, group, or organization that affects or is affected by the conduct of the research” (Gualandris 2015). In general, stakeholders can be identified using criteria such as their level of 1. Journal Articles influence and interest in research (Olander, and Landin 2005). are scholarly articles compiled in peer-reviewed journals (most credible) that were classified according to the field of study. These are considered as Stakeholders may include groups of people that are affected directly or the top choice for primary sources in terms of validity and credibility. A indirectly by the study. Research studies that focus on people’s understanding, journal article requires a peer review process and verification conducted by a behavior, or culture will include the observed group as direct stakeholders. panel of experts on the topic. The peer review process contributes to the Indirect stakeholders are groups of people who are affected by the study after it credibility of a journal article because of the strenuous process it undergoes has affected the direct stakeholders. The effects of a study on its stakeholders before being published. may be positive or negative. Overall, identifying key stakeholders is essential to there is a research title, author, abstract, intro, methodology, result and elaborate and justify the significance of the study. discussion, conclusion, and references 2. Audios and Videos Benefits of the Study are primary sources that are commonly used in qualitative research. These media recordings capture and document firsthand the phenomena that the Benefits are defined as the positive impacts of an activity toward a targeted (or sometimes untargeted) subject. In research, benefits can be defined as any researcher seeks to observe further. For research work in the natural positive impact that the results of the study may bring to individuals, sciences, video recordings often focus on laboratory subjects. For example, groups, organizations, or to the body of knowledge in general (Newing 2010; a researcher may use video and audio recordings to document experiments Baron 2008). It is important to include the benefits of the research, especially being conducted in the laboratory. In the social sciences, video and audio when writing a research proposal since it provides a strong justification behind recordings are used to document events in their natural settings. the conduct of research. Research that brings little to no benefit will most likely be rejected. Unlike peer-reviewed journal articles, video and audio recordings are considered raw data because the recordings per se have not been In research projects that seek financial support from external individuals, subjected to data analysis. However, these recordings are still considered groups, or institutions (e.g., a research foundation), a convincing statement of relevant primary sources because of their ability to store firsthand the benefits of the study merits a higher chance of approval. These benefits of observations, which can be used as the basis for data analysis. the study must be included in the discussion on the significance of the research. While there are costs associated with any research study, a 3. Survey Data convincing discussion of the benefits of the study would reflect that the are the outputs of surveys conducted by surveying bodies that may be benefits would outweigh the costs. government institutions, nongovernmental organizations, private groups, or even individuals. Survey data are obtained from a chosen sample using Beneficiaries of the Study definite survey instruments or questionnaires. Survey topics may include preferences, viewpoints, knowledge, or status. A common public survey is Aside from identifying the specific benefits of the study, the next question pre-election surveys, which gather views about the voting preferences of would be identifying the recipients of these benefits. These individuals, groups, individuals. A primary source of survey data in the Philippines is the or organizations that are positively affected by the research are called the Philippine Statistics Authority. Survey data are usually used in quantitative beneficiaries. They are, essentially, the members of the identified stakeholders research, yet they may also be important references for qualitative research (Newing 2010; Baron 2008). The only difference is that beneficiaries, by the especially if it is used in mixed methods research. name itself, are the ones who benefit from the research. It is also important that, when identifying the beneficiaries, an explanation should be included as to why 4. Statistical Data or how they benefit from the research (Olander, and Landin 2005). are compilation of numerical data. Survey data can be a part of statistical data. Statistical data are subjected to statistical tests to be used for analysis Examples of beneficiaries of the research include the researcher himself, the and interpretation. Examples of statistical data are poverty statistics, which individuals or groups whose knowledge and awareness about the topic will can include a compilation of numerical data on annual family income, increase due to the research, the organization(s) that will make use of the household composition, and food prices. Several Philippine statistical data information in the research study, and the community that may craft policies or sets are also available in the Philippine Statistics Authority data archive. enhance their knowledge based on the findings of the study. Similar to survey data, statistical data are more commonly used in quantitative research. SECONDARY SOURCES Parts of Citation Secondary sources are references that contain information based on primary sources. Secondary sources may be the interpretation, review, or analysis of 1. The in-text citation appears within the body of the researcher’s text. Each information found in primary sources. The information presented in secondary in-text citation should be referenced properly at the end of the paper. sources is not observed firsthand by the author of the material. Common Example: examples of secondary sources include the following: scientific review articles, Parents are considered as one of the primary sources of social support of news or magazine articles, and textbooks. adolescents. They influence the development of adolescents’ career interests, goals, intentions, career-related self-efficacy, and outcome expectations 1. Review Articles contains a summary and a review of previous and current findings on a (Kenny & Medvide, 2013). particular topic. Scientific review articles are based on published journal articles. They use multiple peer-reviewed journal articles to give a 2. The reference list found at the end of a paper includes all the literature comprehensive and exhaustive view of the topic. Because of the summary in sources used by the researcher. The reference list of the different style guides their content, these materials are useful to any writer doing a literature varies in terms of the title. In APA, this list is called the “References” page, review, whether qualitative or quantitative research. A scientific review article “Works Cited” in MLA, and “Bibliography” for CMOS. may also be published in peer-reviewed journals, but it is different from a journal article in terms of the originality of ideas presented in it. Example: References Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens 2. News or Magazine Articles through the twenties. Oxford University Press. are useful for both qualitative and quantitative research studies. At present, news or magazine articles can be accessed in print and online. The contents Smith, R. L., Carroll, A. M., and Callaghan, K. T. (2015). Emerging adulthood: A of these materials can be used to support the existence of facts about a college student, middle class perk? Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, topic. However, these articles do not contain in-depth analyses and just 20(2), 80-85. present descriptions of data. News or magazine articles may also be written from different points of view depending on the writer and the publisher. Thus, researchers must exercise caution in using these types of articles as the In-text Citation Guidelines primary basis for arguments. APA 7TH EDITION BASIC RULES 3. Textbooks If you are to use APA, it follows the author and year of publishing format of in-text citation. Including the page number is also encouraged but not are materials containing information from highly specific subjects to broader required. Examples: fields. Textbooks are considered as secondary sources because most of the contents of textbooks are compiled by the authors from published reference A work by one author books on a particular topic. Textbooks are often used in educational 1. APA style is commonly used by psychology majors (Dela Cruz, 2020). institutions because they contain exercises or activities that can test 2. According to Dela Cruz (2020), APA style is commonly used by psychology students’ mastery of a topic. majors. A work by two authors U4L2: Citing Literature Sources 1. APA style is commonly used by psychology majors (Dela Cruz & Garcia, 2020). Giving proper acknowledgment to authors of an original work is an obligation of 2. Dela Cruz and Garcia (2020) explained that APA style is commonly used by a researcher. Practicing academic honesty in research can be done with proper psychology majors. citation of sources. It is also important to take note that there are different Take note of the use of “&” whenever the citation is inside the parentheses, as citation styles suited for a certain discipline. shown in the example above. A work by three or more authors Purpose of Citing Lit. Sources 1. APA style is commonly used by psychology majors (Dela Cruz et al., 2020). To give credit to other writers and researchers. Different ideas come 2. According to Dela Cruz et al. (2020), APA style is commonly used by from different researchers who contributed to the field and the topic of your psychology majors. interest. Citing these researchers, who exerted time and effort, As shown in the above example, only the first author will be listed, followed by demonstrates respect for their work. “et al.” even on the first citation. MLA HANDBOOK 8TH EDITION BASIC RULES To support evidence in the researcher’s argument. Citing researchers in An MLA in-text citation depends on the medium of your source (e.g., print, your field makes your research work credible. It makes your work more electronic source). MLA follows the author-page format of in-text citation. The persuasive when it is backed by evidence coming from experts in your field author’s last name and the page number(s) from which the statement is taken who have already done empirical studies on the subject. must be included in the citation. Examples: To easily locate sources about a certain topic. Proper citations help other A work by one author researchers who study the same topic of interest to locate related sources 1. MLA style is frequently used by linguistics majors (Dela Cruz 9). easily. It helps the researcher to save time and keep track of these sources 2. Dela Cruz suggests that MLA style is frequently used by linguistics majors (9). for future use. Notice from the sample above that there is no comma on the in-text citation. A work by two authors Citation Style Guides 1. MLA style is frequently used by linguistics majors (Dela Cruz and Garcia 9). There are different style guides in citing literature sources, and each has its 2. Dela Cruz and Garcia suggest that MLA style is frequently used by linguistics own set of rules majors (9). and guidelines. The most common style guides are the following: List the authors’ last names in the parenthetical citation or in the text. Take note of The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) the “and” being used in the parenthetical citation, as shown above. // Psychology, Education, Social Sciences A work by three or more authors The Modern Language Association Style (MLA) 1. MLA style is frequently used by linguistics majors (Dela Cruz et al. 9). // Humanities 2. Dela Cruz et al. suggest that MLA style is frequently used by linguistics majors The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) (9). // Business, History, Fine Arts only the first author will be listed, followed by “et al.” even on the first citation. CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE 17TH EDITION BASIC RULES Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting Unlike the first two style guides, Chicago has two systems: notes and bibliography, and author-date. The notes and bibliography system uses Original Text: numbered footnotes in between text to guide the reader to a citation at the Introverts, in contrast, may have strong social skills and enjoy parties and bottom of the page. Each note has a corresponding entry in the bibliography. business meetings, but after a while wish they were home in their pajamas. They Examples: prefer to devote their social energies to close friends, colleagues, and family. They listen more than they talk, think before they speak, and often feel as if they Clark and Creswell suggest that “a good, rigorous literature review therefore express themselves better in writing than in conversation. They tend to dislike conveys that the researcher completed a comprehensive review of the conflict. Many have a horror of small talk, but enjoy deep discussions. literature, organized, and synthesized this literature.” 1 Extracted from: 1. Vicki L. Plano Clark and John W. Creswell, Understanding Research: A Cain, Susan. Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking. Consumer’s Guide (New Jersey: Pearson, 2015), 143. New York: Crown Publishers, 2012. The author-date format is similar to the APA style, which lists the last name of Summarizing involves writing the core of the text. The main purpose of the author and the year of the publication. Take note of the placement of summarizing is to narrow down a text to highlight its main arguments. Other punctuation marks inside the parenthetical citation. details, such as examples, are often disregarded. The summary should not be written exactly as what was presented in the original text. EX. Example: In writing literature reviews, it is suggested that “a good, rigorous literature According to Cain (2012), introverts may have good social skills but prefer to review therefore conveys that the researcher completed a comprehensive be at home at the same time. They prefer to interact with people closest to them. review of the literature, organized, and synthesized this literature” (Plano Clark Moreover, introverts prefer listening than speaking, thinking carefully before and Creswell 2015). talking, and writing their opinions rather than verbalizing it. Paraphrasing is a way of using different words to present the same ideas from the original text. In contrast to summarizing, paraphrasing is used with short U4L3: Summarizing Literature Sources portions of text, such as sentences and phrases. It is an alternative to direct quotations and allows the researcher to integrate other sources from the research and other academic work. Example: Defining Summarization Cain (2012) suggests that introverts prefer listening over speaking, thinking Summarizing is a necessary skill in writing, reading, and doing research. The carefully before talking, and feeling more confident in writing their opinions than researcher must explain the main arguments in the work using his or her own verbalizing them. words. Summarizing is also done to avoid reporting information that is irrelevant to the topic of interest. Summarizing is when a text is significantly reduced from its original length but, at the same time, keeping the key ideas intact and still Quoting is used to write the exact words used in a short segment of the original expressing what the author meant to explain (Buckley 2004). source. Quotations support the researcher’s arguments by using them as a strong piece of evidence. The statement must be attributed to the author. SUMMARY AND ITS PURPOSE Example: Summarizing literature sources serves several purposes in research. It serves as Cain (2012) found out in her study of introverts that they tend to “listen more a guide for the researcher to put the key ideas of a text together. It also than they talk, think before they speak, and often feel as if they express explains the researcher’s arguments using fewer words than the original text. themselves better in writing than in conversation” (p. 22). Summaries also give supporting ideas of the main arguments of research. Most importantly, it brings about a deeper understanding of the text. QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUMMARY uses your own words to explain ideas from the text only includes ideas relevant to the topic has shorter and more concise words emphasizes the main arguments of the text only contains ideas that are mentioned in the original text example of a good summary: During the funeral mass of the writer’s dad, her sister got an unexpected call saying that he had already made it home, and later found out that the voicemail was from an unknown caller. The writer’s sister obviously knows that the message was coincidental but it made her think that her dad also completed his journey to heaven. HOW TO WRITE A GOOD SUMMARY 1. Read the original work carefully before writing the summary. This is to ensure that the author’s argument was understood, and all essential details are included in the summary. 2. List down the key ideas of the text using your own words. so u have an outline 3. Eliminate all information that is unnecessary and irrelevant. Always remember that a summary must stand on its own, without compromising crucial points to reflect the author or researcher’s work. 4. Compare the summary and the original work. - to ensure that the main ideas were accurately represented in the summary. 5. Start the summary using signal phrases to introduce the material. Signal phrases are composed of words that introduce the reduced text. U4L4: Listing References Writing the Bibiliography The table below summarizes the recommended MLA formatting for listing the common kinds of literature sources. Using the MLA format, the list of references The bibliography is the section that lists all the literature used and cited in the is labelled as “Works Cited.” body text of a research paper. This section is placed at the end of the work. The Type of Source Formatting more general term for a bibliography is a “list of references.” It is important to Sin