Phy Sci Reviewer - 1st Qtr PDF

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE TOPIC 1.1: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE THE BIG BANG THEORY - Filled homogeneously with a ➔ “Primeval Atom” Theory high-energy density. ➔ First proposed in 1920 by Belgian...

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE TOPIC 1.1: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE THE BIG BANG THEORY - Filled homogeneously with a ➔ “Primeval Atom” Theory high-energy density. ➔ First proposed in 1920 by Belgian - Incredibly high Astronomer Georges Lemaitre temperatures and pressure (1894-1966) caused rapid expansion and ➔ It is the most widely known cooling. accepted explanation of how the ➔ Formation of Matter and universe came into existence. Antimatter ➔ This theory suggests that - Energy fluctuations approximately 13.7 billion years ago, produced the universe began expanding from particle-antiparticle pairs, a singularity, a point of infinite including electrons and density and temperature. positrons, and quarks and ➔ An imbalance caused this point to antiquarks. expand, leading to the creation of ➔ Annihilation the universe. - Heat death = slow process where everything evens out; no thermodynamic heat SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN THE BIG energy BANG - Imbalance of matter ➔ Singularity (baryons) and antimatter - Also called as the Compact (antibaryons) in the Point or the Planck Era observed universe - The origin point of the - Particle annihilation; matter universe. and antimatter cancel each - From point 0 to approx. other 10-43 seconds. ➔ Big Bang Nucleosynthesis ➔ Inflation - Formation of light elements - A rapid expansion that in the early universe. smoothed out - Stellar Nucleosynthesis: inconsistencies in the early formation of heavy universe. elements. Commonly referred to as the hydrogen Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  burning phase. This phase is FORCES THAT CREATED THE classified into two types: the UNIVERSE proton-proton cycle and the ➔ Gravitational carbon-nitrogen-oxygen - Weakest but operates on (CNO) cycle. astronomical distances Formula: e=cm^2 - Acts on all objects with - Supernova mass Nucleosynthesis: explosion - Orbit of Earth around the sun of a massive star. (5 to 10 ➔ Weak Nuclear times the mass of the sun) - Transmutation of neutron to when it runs out of nuclear a proton in B- decay fuel. - Nuclear decay - Birth of the elements in the ➔ Electromagnetic periodic table. - Interactions between - Except hydrogen and some charged particles helium as it was created in - Responsible for light and the Big Bang chemical properties of ➔ Recombination matter - Formation of neutral atoms ➔ Strong Nuclear (hydrogen and helium - Binds nucleons (protons and atoms), allowing light to neutrons) in nucleus travel freely through space. - Protons and electrons EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE BIG combined to form hydrogen atoms. BANG THEORY ➔ Dark Ages 1. Redshift - Period where no stars or - Observations by Edwin galaxies existed. Hubble showed that ➔ Formation of Cosmic Bodies galaxies are moving away - Matter began to clump from each other, suggesting together (due to gravity), an expanding universe. forming stars and galaxies. - Vester Slipher and Carl - Occurred after the dark Wilhelm Wirtz discovered ages, wherein the universe that distant galaxies are was transparent and had moving away from us, cooled. providing the first empirical basis for the expansion of Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  the universe through the BALANCING OF NUCLEAR measurement of wavelengths of light from EQUATIONS the spiral nebulae. TOPIC 1.1A: BALANCING OF NUCLEAR EQUATIONS - Described as stretching out of light waves seen as “shifting” towards the red ISOTOPES part of the spectrum. ➔ Elements with the same number of 2. Cosmic Microwave Background protons but with different number (CMB) Radiation of neutrons/mass number. - The remnants of electromagnetic radiation that filled the universe after the explosion, providing a snapshot of the universe 380,000 years after the Big Bang. FORMULAS: - This radiation is the thermal Atomic Number (Z) = number of leftover of the transition protons phase that occurred when Mass number (A) = number of the hot early universe protons + number of neutrons cooled enough for atoms to A – Z = number of neutrons combine. Number of electrons = Number of - The CMB was discovered by protons Robert Wilson and Arno Atomic charge = number of Penzias. protons – number of electrons 3. Abundance of Light Elements NUCLEAR REACTIONS - The observed ratios of ➔ Changes in nuclei that result in hydrogen, helium, and changes in their atomic numbers, lithium (believed that’s mass numbers, or energy states. made 3 minutes in the Big Bang) in the universe match Specific Types predictions from Big Bang 1. Alpha decay – loss of an alpha nucleosynthesis. particle 2. Beta decay – loss of a beta particle Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  3. Gamma radiation – emission of WRITING OF CHEMICAL gamma ray 4. Positron emission – conversion of FORMULA a proton in a nucleus into a TOPIC 1.1B: WRITING OF CHEMICAL FORMULA neutron, along with the release of a positron 5. Electron capture – drawing of an 1. Write the chemical symbol of the electron into an atom’s nucleus elements. 6. Bombardment of alpha particle – 2. Write the number of electrons to be addition of alpha particle donated or accepted by each element. Terms used for nuclear reactions 3. Criss-cross the number of electrons and drop as subscripts. 4. Simplify the numbers if necessary Before and After the Arrow (for the same numbers, even NEUTRON RELEASE OF numbers) CAPTURE NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT MONOATOMIC IONS OF ALPHA ALPHA DECAY 1. Identify the Element: Determine the PARTICLE symbol of the element from the POSITRON POSITRON periodic table. CAPTURE EMISSION 2. Determine the Charge: Based on ELECTRON BETA DECAY the element’s position in the CAPTURE periodic table, determine whether it GAMMA GAMMA forms a cation (positive charge) or RADIATION RADIATION anion (negative charge). 3. Write the Ion's Formula: Write the PROTON RELEASE OF element's symbol. Indicate the CAPTURE PROTON charge as a superscript: "+" for cations and "−" for anions, followed by the number if the charge is greater than one. POLYATOMIC IONS Group is even and odd (-1) Group is even and even (-2) Group is odd and odd (+1) Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  - Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, 1. Write the element symbol for the and Metallic Bond metal and its charge. (Periodic Table) IONIC BOND 2. Find the name and charge of the ➔ Results from the transfer of one or polyatomic ion. more valence electrons from one 3. Balance the charges by adding atom to another. subscripts ➔ Exists between a metal (M) that tends to lose electrons and a COVALENT COMPOUNDS nonmetal (NM) that tends to accept electrons. ➔ Monoatomic Ions: An ion made of exactly one atom and has an unequal number of protons and electrons. Depending on the charge, these ions may be classified as cations (positive) or anions (negative). ➔ Polyatomic Ions: If the compound is made up of two or more atoms, it can be referred to as a polyatomic ion or a molecular ion. Depending on the charge, these ions may be classified as cations (positive) or anions (negative). COVALENT BONDING ➔ A covalent bond is formed when POLARITY OF MOLECULES sharing of an electron pair between atoms exists. This type of bonding TOPIC 1.3: POLARITY OF MOLECULES occurs between nonmetals. It could be polar or nonpolar. ➔ Atoms - Polar Covalent Bond = - Atoms bond to form Bonding electrons shared compounds and attain equally between two atoms. stability. No charges on atoms. Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  Symmetry: outer elements As you move from left to right are the same. across a period, electronegativity - Nonpolar Covalent Bond = increases. Therefore, elements on Bonding electrons shared the left side (e.g., sodium and unequally between two magnesium) generally have lower atoms. Partial charges on electronegativity values. atoms. It does not have symmetry. e.g, S=C=O 2. Electronegativity Values: - Ionic Bond = Complete You can also refer to the specific transfer of one or more electronegativity values assigned valence electrons. Full to elements. These values are often charges on resulting ions. found in chemistry reference materials. ELECTRONEGATIVITY A general rule of thumb is that ➔ It is the tendency of an atom to elements with electronegativity attract electrons toward itself. values less than 2 have low ➔ The absolute value of the electronegativity. electronegativity difference (ΔEN) between two atoms gives an idea LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE of the type of chemical bonds that (LEDS) can exist between them. ➔ Single Bond - Ionic bond = 1.8 and above - Representation: A single - Polar covalent bond = bond is represented by a 0.41-1.79 single line (−) between two - Nonpolar covalent bond = 0 atoms. - 0.40 - Electrons Involved: It consists of one pair of shared Determining if an element has a low electrons (two dots). electronegativity value ➔ Double Bond - Representation: Two lines 1. Position on the Periodic Table: (=) between two atoms Group 1 (Alkali metals) and Group 2 represent a double bond. (Alkaline earth metals) elements - Electrons Involved: It consists have low electronegativity. of two pairs of shared These elements are located on the electrons (four dots). left side of the periodic table. ➔ Triple Bond Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  - Representation: A triple INTERMOLECULAR FORCES bond is represented by ➔ These are the attractive forces three lines (≡) between two present between molecules; forces atoms. that exist between molecules. - Electrons Involved: Three ➔ Generally, they are called van der pairs of shared electrons (six Waals forces, named after the dots). Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals. ➔ Physical properties of matter (e.g. density, hardness, solubility, physical state, melting point, boiling INTERMOLECULAR point) are attributed to IMFA. FORCES OF ATTRACTION TOPIC 1.3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 1. Ion-Dipole Forces - Forces that occur between INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES an ion (charged particle) ➔ Holds the atoms of a molecule and a polar molecule together (molecule with a positive 1. Ionic Bond and negative side). - Formed when there is a 2. Hydrogen Bonding transfer of electrons from a - Bonding between molecules metal to a nonmetal. with H bonded to highly 2. Covalent Bond electronegative atom (O, N, - Electrons are shared or F) between two or more - It is a special type of nonmetals dipole-dipole force between 3. Metallic Bond polar molecules having an H - Exist between metals, mobile atom bonded to a highly electrons of one metal can electronegative atom with form a bond with the fixed lone electron pairs. positive ion 3. Dipole-Dipole Forces - Dipole forces are forces between polar molecules. Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  - Attraction between ends of - Inversely proportional with polar molecules with temperature different charges. ➔ Viscosity 4. London Dispersion Forces (LDF) - Liquid‘s resistance to flow that - Present in all molecules exists between the molecules of a caused by fluctuations in liquid when they move past each the electron distribution other. within atoms or molecules. - An increase in temperature - These forces are produced decreases viscosity. when temporary dipoles - The greater the number of H-bonds, (results from a shift in the the stronger the intermolecular position of electrons) are force of attraction is, and the higher induced in nonpolar the viscosity of a liquid. molecules. ➔ Capillary Action - Weakest among the 4 types - It shows the effect of force of of IMFA adhesion existing between a solid - More electrons = stronger and liquid in a tube. It results from LDF the competition between cohesive and adhesive forces. Cohesion = same molecules attracted to each other Adhesion = one substance attracted to another substance ➔ Vapor Pressure LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND PHASE - Pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid above a DIAGRAM sample of the liquid in a closed container. Properties of Liquids Vaporization = change of ➔ Surface Tension state from liquid to gas - Force that causes the surface of a Vapor = gaseous state of a liquid to contract substance which is normally - Force needed to break through the a liquid or solid at room surface temperature - The stronger the intermolecular force of a liquid, the greater the surface tension is. Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  - If a liquid has weak intermolecular - High Boiling Point = strong force, the escaping tendency is intermolecular forces high, its vapor pressure is high caused by formation of - An increase in temperature H-bond; water is liquid at increases vapor pressure. room temperature ➔ Boiling Point - High Specific Heat = water - Temperature at which the vapor can absorb or release large pressure of a liquid is equal to the amounts of heat without a atmospheric pressure change in temperature - If a liquid has strong intermolecular - High Density in its Liquid force, the escaping tendency is low, Form = only substance that its vapor pressure is low and it has contracts when cooled; a high boiling point. H-bond is more extensive in ➔ Molar Heat of Vaporization solid state of water (ice) - Amount of heat needed to vaporize than its liquid state a given amount of liquid at its - High Surface Tension = it is boiling point caused by hydrogen bond - The stronger the intermolecular formation among water forces of attraction, the higher the molecules causes water to heat of vaporization. move upward - High Heat of Vaporization = Structure and Properties of Water large amount of heat is ➔ Structure of Water needed to vaporize a given - At room temperature, pure amount of water; significant water is colorless, odorless drop in temperature during and tasteless liquid evaporation - It turns to ice, its solid form, at 0°C and 1 atm Properties and Types of Solids - At 100°C, it becomes a gas, ➔ Properties of Solid called steam - Have very strong forces of - Water molecules has bent attraction shape, with two partially - Definite shape and volume positive hydrogen atoms - Particles are packed closely and a partially negative together oxygen atom - Have high densities Particles - It is a polar molecule vibrate in place ➔ Properties of Water ➔ Types of Solid Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  - Crystalline Solids = COLLISION THEORY AND Particles are arranged in a regular geometric pattern. RATES OF CHEMICAL Highly ordered and repetitive pattern. REACTION - Amorphous Solid = Have TOPIC 1.4: COLLISION THEORY AND RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTION fixed shape and volume but particles are not arranged in regular geometric pattern. CHEMICAL REACTIONS Also known as supercooled ➔ A chemical change involves the liquids. Appears to have transformation of substances into been cooled at very low new substances with different temperature and viscosity is chemical compositions. very high. ➔ The chemical properties of the ➔ Types of Crystals substance change, and new - Molecular Solids = Atoms or products are formed. molecules held together by ➔ Chemical changes often involve intermolecular forces like energy changes in heat, light, or London dispersion forces, sound. dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonds. Soft, low to moderately high melting PHYSICAL CHANGE points, poor electrical and ➔ A physical change is a change in thermal conductivity. the state or appearance of a - Metallic Solids = Joined by substance without altering its metallic bonds; the force of chemical composition. attraction between the ➔ Only physical properties like shape, mobile valence electrons size, phase (solid, liquid, gas), or and the fixed positive metal texture change. The chemical ion binds the atoms identity of the substance remains together. Strength of force the same. depends on the nature of ➔ Physical changes may involve metal. Good electrical and changes in energy, but no new thermal conductors, substances are formed. malleable and ductile COLLISION THEORY Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  ➔ A theory proposed independently ➔ (EA) breaks the existing bonds and by Max Trautz (German) in 1916 form new bonds and must collide and William Lewis (British) in 1918, at the correct angles (proper that qualitatively explains how orientation-direction with which chemical reactions occur and why atoms collide). reaction rates differ for different reactions. NECESSITY OF CONDITIONS ➔ Collision theory is a set of principles ➔ Conditions that cause more that states that the reacting frequent collisions between particles can form products when reactants speed up a reaction, they collide with one another because there are more provided those collisions have opportunities for a chemical enough kinetic energy and the change to occur. correct orientation. ➔ Conditions that make each collision ➔ Based on this simple model, we can between reactants more energetic predict which factors will speed up or more effective also increase the or slow down a chemical reaction. rate of a reaction, because the ➔ Not all collisions are purely percentage of collisions that lead to destructive. a change will be increased. - A chemical reaction will not occur without breaking FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF some bonds. CHEMICAL REACTIONS - Most chemical reactions ➔ Temperature occur only when reactants - Temperature for reaction collide with one another. increases the particles gain more energy which means CONDITIONS IN A SUCCESSFUL they move faster and COLLISION because they’re moving ➔ In order for a reaction to occur, the faster, they collide more particles of the reactant must have frequently. enough energy (speed or KE). - Increase in collision will give ➔ Particles that lack the necessary more energy each time so kinetic energy may collide, but the are more likely to exceed the particles will simply bounce off one activation energy. another unchanged. ➔ Concentration and Pressure ➔ The minimum amount of energy is - Concentration and pressure called (EA) active energy. both refer to how many Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  particles there are per unit include both organic and inorganic of volume. substances. - Concentration generally ➔ All biomolecules contain a carbon refers to solutions. chain or ring, and carbon, with its - Pressure refers to gases. four outer-shell electrons, can form - An increase in concentration stable covalent bonds, making it a or pressure means that central element in biomolecular there'll be more particles per structures. unit of volume which makes the collisions more frequent CARBON AS THE CENTRAL ELEMENT and so increases the rate of 1. All biomolecules contain a Carbon reaction. chain or ring ➔ Surface Area 2. Carbon has 4 outer shell electrons. - Higher surface area will also 3. Therefore it’s bonding capacity is increase the rate of reaction. great ➔ Catalyst 4. It forms covalent bonds. - Catalysts are substances 5. Once bound to other elements (or that speed up a reaction to other Carbons), it is very stable without being used up in the reaction themselves Monomers - A catalyst lowers the ➔ Monomers are made into polymers activation energy providing via dehydration reactions. an alternative reaction ➔ Monomers are small molecules that pathway can join together to form larger - Higher proportion of molecules called polymers. successful collisions Polymers ➔ Polymers are broken down into monomers via hydrolysis reactions. ➔ Polymers are made up of repeating BIOMOLECULES units of monomers. Polymerization links monomers to form polymers, TOPIC 1.5: BIOMOLECULES with examples like polyethylene and nylon. ➔ Biomolecules are compounds found in living organisms, and they TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES Carbohydrates Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  ➔ These are sugars and starches that digestion for absorption into serve as quick energy sources and the bloodstream. structural components (e.g., ➔ Polysaccharides cellulose, chitin). - Polysaccharides are ➔ Carbohydrates range from simple complex carbohydrates sugars (monosaccharides) to made up of long chains of complex ones (polysaccharides like monosaccharide units. They starch and glycogen). serve functions like energy storage and structural Carbohydrate Structure support in living organisms. ➔ Monosaccharides Starch = For energy storage - Monosaccharides consist of of plants and algae. a single sugar molecule and Glycogen = For energy cannot be further storage in animals, fungi hydrolyzed into simpler and bacteria. compounds. Cellulose = Form of cell - They serve as energy walls of plants and algae. sources in biological Chitin = Form of cell walls of systems and play essential fungi, exoskeleton of roles in cellular processes arthropods, and scales of such as glycolysis and fishes. photosynthesis. ➔ Disaccharides Breaking Down of Carbohydrates - Disaccharides are ➔ Breaking down carbohydrates is the carbohydrates composed of process of turning complex two monosaccharide units carbohydrates like starches and linked together through a sugars into simpler forms that our glycosidic bond. They are bodies can use for energy. formed when two ➔ It happens through digestion, where monosaccharides undergo enzymes in our digestive system a condensation reaction, break the bonds between the sugar releasing a molecule of molecules. water. - This process releases - Disaccharides serve as glucose, which is the main energy sources in the diet source of energy for our and are broken down into cells. When we eat monosaccharides during carbohydrates like bread, Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03  our body breaks them down unchanged (olive oil, canola, during digestion. peanut oil, avocados) - Enzymes in our mouth and - One variety of small intestine turn them polyunsaturated fat into smaller sugars like (Omega 3-fatty acids) glucose. guards against blood clot - These sugars are absorbed formation and reduce fat into the bloodstream and levels in the blood (certain used for energy by our cells. fish, walnuts, and almonds) Any leftovers are passed out of the body as waste. Classifications of Lipids 1. Fatty Acids: Building blocks of lipids, Carbohydrates: Functions can be saturated or unsaturated. 1. Provide quick energy to the body. 2. Triglycerides: Commonly known as 2. Dietary fiber can help lower blood fats or oils, they store energy. cholesterol. 3. Phospholipids: Essential for building 3. Spare protein from being burned so cell membranes. it can be used to build and repair. 4. Steroids: Include cholesterol and 4. Stores energy. hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Lipids 5. Waxes: Provide protection and ➔ They are waxy or oily substances waterproofing for plants and which are present in all living animals. organisms as a main constituent of all cell membranes. Function of Lipids ➔ They are macromolecules made up Energy source. of fatty acid monomers. Protecting and structuring organs. - Saturated fats raise Help in insulating the body. LDL-cholesterol levels in the Generate heat. blood (animal fats, dairy, Giving cell membranes structure. coconut oil, cocoa butter) - Polyunsaturated fats leave Proteins LDL-cholesterol unchanged; ➔ These are polymers of amino acids but lower HDL-cholesterol that serve various functions, (safflower and corn oil) including enzymes, structural - Monounsaturated fats components, and transport leave LDL and HDL levels molecules. Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03 Structure of Protein Function of Proteins 1. Primary Structure: This level refers 1. Enzyme catalysts – specific for 1 reaction to the linear sequence of amino 2. Defense – antibody proteins, other acids linked together by peptide proteins bonds. The specific sequence of 3. Transport- Hemoglobin amino acids determines the 4. Support – keratin, fibrin, collagen protein's unique identity and 5. Motion – actin and myosin function. 6. Regulation- some hormones, regulatory 2. Secondary Structure: Secondary proteins on DNA, cell receptors structure refers to the folding 7. Storage – Ca and Fe attached to storage patterns that occur within proteins segments of the protein chain. The two main types of secondary Nucleic Acids structure are alpha helices and ➔ These include DNA and RNA, beta sheets. These structures are responsible for genetic information stabilized by hydrogen bonds and protein synthesis. between amino acids. ➔ DNA stores hereditary information, 3. Tertiary Structure: Tertiary structure while RNA plays a key role in refers to the overall translating this information into three-dimensional shape of the proteins. protein. It is determined by interactions between amino acid Nucleic Acids: Structure side chains (such as hydrogen 1. Sugar: Nucleic acids contain a bonds, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, sugar molecule, which is either and hydrophobic interactions). deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA. Tertiary structure is critical for the This sugar forms the backbone of protein's function. the nucleic acid chain. 4. Quaternary Structure: Some 2. Phosphate Group: Attached to the proteins consist of multiple sugar molecule are phosphate polypeptide chains (subunits) that groups. These phosphate groups come together to form a functional link adjacent sugar molecules in protein complex. Quaternary the nucleic acid chain, forming the structure describes the backbone. arrangement of these subunits and 3. Nitrogenous Bases: Attached to any interactions between them. each sugar molecule are nitrogenous bases. There are four types of bases in DNA: adenine (A), Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03 thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). In RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine. These bases pair up in a complementary manner (A with T or U, and C with G), forming the "rungs" of the DNA double helix or the base pairs in RNA. Yuna Ocampo & Moses Teodoro | 11ABM - 01 & 03