Mini-Exam #1 Study Guide Pysc 150 PDF

Mini-Exam #1 Study Guide Lecture 1 (Chapter 1) 1)​ Describe the trait approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ Most dominant approach. -​ Theoretical view of personality that focuses on individual differences in personality and behavior...

Mini-Exam #1 Study Guide Lecture 1 (Chapter 1) 1)​ Describe the trait approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ Most dominant approach. -​ Theoretical view of personality that focuses on individual differences in personality and behavior. -​ Question that can be asked: Does neuroticism change over the course of people’s lives? -​ approach studies personality by identifying and measuring consistent characteristics or traits that influence how people think, feel, and behave across different situations and over time. 2)​ Describe the biological approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ the view of personality that focuses on the way behavior and personality are influenced by neuroanatomy, biochemistry, genetics, and evolution. -​ It navigates the inherited traits, such as anxiety. 3)​ Describe the psychoanalytic approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ the theoretical view of personality, based on the writings of Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes the unconscious processes of the mind including the Id, Ego, Superego, and internal conflicts. -​ 4)​ Describe the phenomenological approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ the theoretical view of personality that emphasizes experience, free will, and the meaning of life. Closely related to humanistic psychology and existentialism. -​ 5)​ Describe the humanistic approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? -​ theory that emphasizes: -​ aspects that are "human" to everyone. -​ an individual's personal worth. -​ Goal of the humanistic approach is to achieve self-actualization through free will. 6)​ Describe the learning and cognitive approach. How does this approach attempt to study personality? - Studies how behavior changes due to rewards and punishments. Social learning theory focuses On how mental processes influence which behaviors are adopted. Key aspects of lecture 1: Understanding what makes each approach unique. For example, the biological approach uses genetics, physiology, etc. to understand how biology can be related to personality. You’ll want to know which research questions are appropriate for each approach. For example, the biological approach is the only one that’s appropriate to answer questions about how hereditary personality traits are. Lecture 2 (Chapter 2) 1)​ Describe S-Data. What are its pros and cons? S- Data (self-Report Data): Involves surveys and questionnaires. Participant will usually be asked “I really like most people” or “I go to many parties” and participant have to select true or false. Pros: -​ Large amounts of information -​ Access to thoughts, feelings, and intentions. -​ Some data is true by definition (ex: self esteem) -​ Easy access and simple -​ Face validity Cons: -​ Subject to bias (some people tend to think positively or negatively about themselves). -​ Potential dishonesty -​ Too simple and way to overused -​ Errors like the “fish and water effect” (an extremely kind person might not realize their Behavior is unusual. 2)​ Describe I-Data. What are its pros and cons? I-Data (Informed Reports): is based on how others perceive an individual. I- Data is usually judgemental, Subjective, and irreducibly human. Some examples of questions “On a scale of 1-10, how extroverted is john?” Or “How would you rate john on honesty”. Pros: -​ Large amount of information -​ Real world basis -​ Common sense -​ Some I-data are true by definition (e.g. likability) -​ Casual force Cons: -​ Limited behavioral information -​ Lack of access to private experience (your friends don’t know about your private thoughts, dreams, Fears, etc. -​ Error (People make random mistakes and tend to remember unusual information). -​ Bias (People can make systematic mistakes & People tend to pick informants that like them). 3)​ Describe L-Data. What are its pros and cons? L-Data (Life Outcome Data): reflects a person's behavior and life circumstances. Verifiable facts about Your life. Ex: hospital records, data of employment, college education, marriage records, death records. Pros: -​ Objective and verifiable -​ Intrinsic importance (usually contains exactly what the psychologists want to know). -​ Psychological relevance - events like illness and employment matter. Cons: -​ Multi-determination - you can’t always make a direct cause and event connection. -​ Possible lack of psychological relevance 4)​ Describe B-Data. What are its pros and cons? B-Data (Behavioral Data): involves direct observation of actions in various contexts. Pros: -​ Can happen in public spaces or laboratory spaces. -​ Wide range of contexts. -​ Appearance of objectivity (because you're looking directly at behavior). Cons: -​ Difficult and potentially expensive (Most people don’t want to carry around devices that record them And most of these devices cost a lot of money). -​ Uncertain interpretation (is this information you’re seeing/hearing normal for that person). 5)​ What is aggregation? Why is it used in research? Aggregation: is the process of combining data from multiple sources to create a holistic view, revealing Broader insights that individual data points may not show. It helps researchers analyze trend and patterns in larger populations. 6)​ What is reliability? Reliability: refers to the measurements consistently reflecting what you intend to assess. Measurement errors occur when test scores are influenced by extraneous factors. Ex: measuring happiness can vary based On external events like winning the lottery. State Happiness: Lottery win is relevant. Trait Happiness: Lottery win is irrelevant, affecting baseline emotions. Validity: Indicates how well a measurement truly assesses what it claims to measure. Key Points: Valid measures must be reliable, but reliable measures aren't always valid. Reliable tests yield consistent results; valid tests yield correct results. Factors Undermining Reliability and Validity: Can include measurement errors, sampling bias, poor data collection, researcher bias, unclear questions, small sample sizes, participant dropout, and environmental influences Can Reliability Exist Without Validity? Yes, a measurement can be reliable but not valid. However, valid measurements must be reliable Study Characteristics Case Study: In-depth analysis of a specific event or individual that utilizes multiple evidence sources and emphasizes context and detail. Correlational Study: Non-experimental design observing relationships between variables without manipulation identifying patterns but not causation, often via surveys or observations. Experimental Study: Involves manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment, and a control group to assess its effect on a dependent variable, controlling for other factors. What are the key characteristics of a quasi-experimental study? A quasi-experimental study aims to establish causal relationships between variables but lacks random assignment, relying instead on pre-existing groups. This design makes it challenging to definitively establish causation due to potential confounding variables and is often used when random assignment is impractical or unethical. Key aspects of Lecture 2: Understanding the types of data, what makes them unique from the others, and what their disadvantages and advantages are. Understand important aspects of studies, like the difference between reliability and validity, how they can be undermined and improved, and how they are related. Understanding the differences between study designs (e.g., correlational, case study, etc.). Hint: Their characteristics help to differentiate them! Be able to identify these study designs Lecture 3 (Chapter 3) Types of Objective Personality Tests: Self-reports, projective tests like thematic apperception test Three examples include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), with the MMPI being the most widely used. Rational Method of Test Creation The rational method involves developing a test by clearly understanding the construct being measured and crafting items that logically reflect it, relying on expert judgment. The criteria focus on a strong connection between items and the construct, with minimal initial empirical data. Factor Analytic Method This statistical technique identifies underlying factors by grouping correlated variables, simplifying complex data into interpretable dimensions. Empirical Method Steps The empirical method relies on direct observation and experimentation, involving steps like defining a research question, reviewing literature, formulating a hypothesis, designing a method, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Effect Size Evaluation Effect size measures the strength of relationships or differences between groups, indicating practical significance. It is more meaningful than -values, with correlation coefficients (r) being common effect sizes. Effect Size Magnitudes Small Effect Size: Minimal relationship between variables Moderate Effect Size: Around 0.5, noticeable but not extreme. Large Effect Size: Indicates significant practical importance. Replication Crisis The replication crisis highlights issues like publication bias and p-hacking, where researchers manipulate data for significant results Researcher Responsibilities Researchers must protect participants by ensuring safety, privacy, and well-being through informed consent, confidentiality, risk minimization, and ethical conduct throughout the research Key aspects of Lecture 3: Understanding the different objective tests, what they measure, and what their key characteristics are Understanding what an effect size is, and how to evaluate an effect size - both direction and strength. Understanding what responsibilities a researcher has to participants. Lecture 4 (Chapter 4) What is personality stability? Personality stability refers to how consistent a person's traits are over time. Research indicates that personality becomes most stable during middle adulthood (late 30s to mid-50s) as people experience fewer significant life changes. What is the personality-situation debate? This debate concerns whether personality or situational context is more influential in determining behavior. Arguments from situationists and counter-arguments from personality psychologists: Situationists argue that behavior is mainly driven by context, presenting three points: 1. Predictability of behavior based on personality is limited. 2. Situations outweigh personality in influencing actions. 3. If that's true, personality assessments are ineffective. In contrast, personality psychologists maintain that while situations are significant, stable personality traits exist and can predict behavior, even if not with total consistency. How well do personality and situation predict behavior? Personality can partially predict behavior, providing an average idea of actions, while specific situations can significantly influence behavior, sometimes more than personality. Both factors are crucial for understanding behavior. Long-term outcomes for personality traits: Conscientiousness: Better health, career success, lower dementia risk, improved relationships Neuroticism: Higher likelihood of mental and physical health issues and relationship troubles. Agreeableness: Positive relationships, health, and finances, but potential negative mental health effects if overly agreeable. Extraversion: Better health, life satisfaction, and mental health, along with improved career outcomes. Openness: Greater creativity, well-being, and job performance. Which trait is the least related to long term outcomes? ???? Key aspects of lecture 4: Understanding the person-situation debate and its arguments. Understanding the positive and negative outcomes are for people high in the big five traits Lecture 5 (Chapter 5) Why do personality judgements matter? Personality judgments are crucial as they influence our interactions, guiding decisions about friendships, trust, dating, hiring, and relationships. They help us navigate social situations based on our assessments of others' traits. Findings of the "bloomer" study by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968): The "Bloomer" experiment demonstrated the self-fulfilling prophecy. Teachers were told certain students were high achievers (though selected randomly), and those students performed better by the end of the vear due to teacher expectations. Importance of the study for personality research: The Pygmalion effect shows that higher expectations can enhance performance, suggesting that individuals internalize positive labels, leading to improved outcomes when others believe in their potential. Sources of expectancies for behavior: Expectancies come from social norms, cultural influences, group roles, past interactions, and individual perceptions, often being stronger in unfamiliar settings or those with defined social roles and power dynamics. Can physical appearance indicate personality traits? While some personality traits may be inferred from physical appearance (like confidence or extroversion), relying solely on looks is often inaccurate due to biases and stereotypes. Aspects of good judges: Intelligent and conscientious people tend to be better judges of character. Women generally excel in this area due to their social sensitivity, while the most accurate male judges tend to be extroverted and well-adjusted. Easily judged traits: Traits like extraversion, physical appearance, and demeanor are more readily observable and. therefore, easier to judge. Properties that aid personality judgment: Observable, consistent information that reflects behaviors (like facial expressions and communication style) helps in accurately judging personality traits. Improving self-knowledge: Enhancing self-knowledge can be achieved through mindfulness, journaling, seeking feedback, analyzing reactions, identifying values, and self-assessment. Weak vs. strong situations: A "weak situation" has few behavioral expectations, allowing more personal expression, while strong situations impose clear norms, which can limit personality visibility. Weak situations are better for judging personality traits. Key aspects of Lecture 5: Understanding expectancies, where they come from and how they can change behavior. Understanding situations when people's personality can be judged easily and cannot be judged easily. This includes understanding aspects of the trait, the judge, the target, and the Information. Good luck, you can do this! 7)​ What is validity? 8)​ What can undermine reliability and validity? 9)​ Can you have reliability without validity? Can you have validity without reliability? 10)​ What are the key characteristics of a case study? 11)​What are the key characteristics of a correlational study? 12)​What are the key characteristics of an experimental study? 13)​What are the key characteristics of a quasi-experimental study? Key aspects of Lecture 2: -​ Understanding the types of data, what makes them unique from the others, and what their disadvantages and advantages are. -​ Understand important aspects of studies, like the difference between reliability and validity, how they can be undermined and improved, and how they are related. -​ Understanding the differences between study designs (e.g., correlational, case study, etc.). Hint: Their characteristics help to differentiate them! Be able to identify these study designs. Lecture 3 (Chapter 3) 1)​ What are the three types of objective personality tests? 2)​ How is a test created using the rational method? What is the criteria of the rational method? 3)​ What is the factor analytic method? What does it measure? 4)​ What is the empirical method? What are the steps involved with it? 5)​ What does an effect size evaluate? 6)​ What is a small effect size? A moderate effect size? A large effect size? 7)​ What is the replication crisis? What are the benefits of replication, and the problems associated with it? 8)​ What are researchers' responsibilities involving protection of people? Key aspects of Lecture 3: Understanding the different objective tests, what they measure, and what their key characteristics are. Understanding what an effect size is, and how to evaluate an effect size - both direction and strength. Understanding what responsibilities a researcher has to participants. Lecture 4 (Chapter 4) 1)​ What is personality stability? When do people’s personalities become more stable? 2)​ What is the personality-situation debate? 3)​ What are the arguments from the situationists? What are the counter-arguments from personality psychologists? 4)​ How well does personality predict behavior? How well does the situation predict behavior? 5)​ What are the long-term outcomes for people high in conscientiousness? 6)​ What are the long-term outcomes for people high in neuroticism? 7)​ What are the long-term outcomes for people high in agreeableness? 8)​ What are the long-term outcomes for people high in extraversion? 9)​ What are the long-term outcomes for people high in openness? 10)​Which trait is the least related to long term outcomes? Key aspects of lecture 4: Understanding the person-situation debate and its arguments. Understanding the positive and negative outcomes are for people high in the big five traits. Lecture 5 (Chapter 5) 1.​ Why do personality judgements matter so much? 2.​ What were the findings of the “bloomer” study by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)? 3.​ Why do the findings from the “bloomer” study by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) matter to people studying personality? What did they tell us about people’s expectations? 4.Where do people’s expectancies for our behavior come from? When are these expectancies particularly strong? 5. Can personality traits accurately be judged by people's physical appearance? If so, what aspects of their personality and what aspects of their physical appearance? 6. What are the aspects of a person who is good at judging others? Hint: it has to do with their personality. 7. What types of traits are easily judged? 8. What properties of information can make it easier to judge people’s personality? 9. How do people improve their self-knowledge? 10. What are weak situations? What are strong situations? Which is better for judging personality traits? Key aspects of Lecture 5: Understanding expectancies, where they come from and how they can change behavior. Understanding situations when people’s personality can be judged easily and cannot be judged easily. This includes understanding aspects of the trait, the judge, the target, and the information. Good luck, you can do this!