Principles of Management - MGT503 PDF

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT - MGT503 Table of Contents Ch# Title Page 1 Historical overview of Management ……………………………………………………… 1...

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT - MGT503 Table of Contents Ch# Title Page 1 Historical overview of Management ……………………………………………………… 1 2 Management and Managers ………………………………………………………………. 5 3 Managerial Roles in Organizations ……………………………………………………….. 7 4 Managerial Functions i.e. POLCA ………………………………………………………... 9 5 Managerial Levels and Skills ……………………………………………………………… 11 6 Management Ideas: Yesterday and Today ………………………………………………... 14 7 Classical View of Management (Scientific and Bureaucratic)……………………………… 16 8 Administrative View of Management ……………………………………………………. 19 9 Behavioral Theories of Management 20 10 Quantitative, Contemporary and Emerging Views of Management ………………………. 23 11 System’s View of Management and Organization ………………………………………... 25 12 Analyzing Organizational Environment and Understanding Organizational Culture …….. 29 st 13 21 Century Management Trends………………………………………………………… 32 14 Understanding Global Environment: WTO and SAARC ………………………………… 36 15 Decision Making and Decision Taking …………………………………………………… 39 16 Rational Decision Making ………………………………………………………………... 41 17 Nature and Types of Managerial Decisions ……………………………………………… 43 18 Non Rational Decision Making ………………………………………………………….. 45 19 Group Decision Making and Creativity ………………………………………………….. 47 20 Planning and Decision Aids-I …………………………………………………………… 50 21 Planning and Decision Aids-II …………………………………………………………… 53 22 Planning: Functions & Benefits ………………………………………………………….. 56 23 Planning Process and Goals Levels ……………………………………………………… 59 24 Management by Objective (MBO) ………………………………………………………. 62 25 Strategic Management-I …………………………………………………………………. 65 26 Strategic Management-II ………………………………………………………………… 66 27 Levels of Strategies, Porter’s Model and Strategy Development (BCG) & Implementation.. 68 28 Entrepreneurship Management ………………………………………………………….. 73 29 Organizing ………………………………………………………………………………. 76 30 Job Design/Specialization and Departmentalization …………………………………….. 78 31 Span of Command, Centralization vs. Decentralization and Line vs. Staff Authority....…… 82 32 Organizational Design and Organic vs. Mechanistic vs. Virtual Structure………...……….. 85 33 Leading and Leadership Motivating Self and Others ……………………………………… 88 34 Maslow’s Needs Theory and its Analysis ………………………………………………… 90 35 Other Need and Cognitive Theories of Motivation ……………………………………… 91 36 Expectancy, Goal Setting and Re-Enforcement Theories ………………………………… 94 37 Motivating Knowledge Professionals Leadership Trait Theories ………………………… 96 38 Behavioral and Situational Models of Leadership ………………………………………… 98 39 Strategic Leadership Models ……………………………………………………………... 102 40 Understanding Group Dynamics in Organizations ……………………………………… 105 41 Group Concepts, Stages of Group Development and Team Effectiveness ……………… 107 42 Understanding Managerial Communication ……………………………………………… 112 43 Communication Networks and Channels Effect of ICT on Managerial Communication … 115 44 Controlling as a Management Function ………………………………………………….. 119 45 Controlling Organizational Performance through Productivity and Quality ……………… 124 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT Major objective of treating “Principles of Management” in a concise, interesting, and understandable manner will be to present management history and theory with an emphasis on the future. Most students will be applying the concepts learned here over a period of next many years. Another objective shall be to identify several areas where management concepts are applicable to the personal and professional goal- setting and also to apply the management skills to the challenge of managing the most difficult peer or subordinate – the one that may confront you in the mirror each morning in your professional career. In any treatment of a basic subject like this, there is little that the resource/anchor person can claim to be uniquely his own except his/her tacit knowledge and the presentation style. The write-ups from chapters of recommended text books for this course have also been included and are highly acknowledged. The Intellectual Heritage of Management Organized endeavors directed by people responsible for planning, organizing, leading, and controlling activities have existed for thousands of years. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China, for instance, are tangible evidence that projects of tremendous scope, employing tens of thousands of people, were undertaken well before modern times. The pyramids are a particularly interesting example. The construction of a single pyramid occupied more than 100,000 workers for 20 years. Who told each worker what to do? Who ensured that there would be enough stones at the site to keep workers busy? The answer to such questions is managers. Regardless of what managers were called at the time, someone had to plan what was to be done, how to organize people and materials to do it, lead and direct the workers, and impose some controls to ensure that everything was done as planned. It is not very difficult for us to imagine modern management techniques in the days of the pharaohs. True, we can get a laugh or two thinking of profit sharing and other twentieth-century terms appearing in the ancient land of the Nile, but the generic relationships of people managing people must have borne a great many similarities. In fact, many ancient documents have been translated to reveal that, through the ages, wherever people have worked together to accomplish their goals, many of the same phenomena have prevailed. Most scholars suggest that management, in its most basic format, has existed since one person persuaded another–whether with club or carrot–to do something. Frequently, management is defined as the challenge of creating as environment where people can work together to achieve a mutual objective. While this is true for managers in business, government, and other organizations, I hope that each management student will recognize the opportunities for applying management concepts to personal challenges. For that purpose, management can be defined as the concepts, techniques, and processes that enable goals to be achieved efficiently and effectively. The Egyptian Pyramid: Approximately four thousand years B.C., the Egyptians were building a civilization edge on the rest of the world. Very few of us can comprehend the extent to which this culture zoomed ahead of its times. If it were possible to make a reliable comparison, we would probably find that no nation in our time is as far ahead of its contemporaries as the land of the Pharaohs was between 4000 B.C. and 525 B.C. The most obvious demonstration of Egyptian power is the construction projects that remain even today. Without the service of cranes, bulldozers, or tea/coffee breaks, the Egyptians constructed mammoth structures of admirable precision. The great pyramid of Cheops, for example, covers thirteen acres and contains 2,300,000 stone blocks. The blocks weigh about two and a half tons each and were cut to size many miles away. The stones were transported and set in place by slave labor and precision planning. The men who built the enduring structures of ancient Egypt not only knew how to use of human resources efficiently but also knew how to manage 100,000 workers in a twenty-year project. In their business and governmental affairs, the Egyptians kept documents to show exactly how much material was received and from whom, when it came in, and exactly how it was used. The military, social, religious, and governmental aspects of Egyptian life were highly organized. There were much inefficiency, © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU but the final task was accomplished. Three commodities, which virtually rule modern efforts, seem to have been only minor considerations along the Nile: time, money, and the satisfaction of the worker. Great China Wall: The Great China Wall built in the time period of 956 years (688 BC – 1644 AD). It is 6000 km long. Its base is 20 feet wide and top 11 feet wide. The height of China Wall is from 7 to 37 feet. The whole China wall is made by hands. Working as united for 956 years, there should be some purposes due to which people worked for a long time. According to history, the purpose of china wall was: To mark territories To defend the area To protect silk road These examples from the past demonstrate that organizations have been around for thousands of years and that management has been practiced for an equivalent period. The Wealth of Nations One of the classic books on economic philosophy was written by Adam Smith, an eighteenth-century professor at Glasgow, Scotland. In 1776, Adam Smith published a classical economics doctrine, The Wealth of Nations, in which he argued the economic advantages that organizations and society would gain form the division of labor, the breakdown of jobs into narrow and repetitive tasks. Using the pin manufacturing industry as an example, Smith claimed that 10 individuals, each doing a specialized task, could produce about 48,000 pints a day among them. However, if each person worked separately and had to perform each task, it would be quite an accomplishment to produce even 10 pins a day! Smith concluded that division of labor increases productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity, by saving time lost in changing tasks, and by creating laborsaving inventions and machinery. The continued popularity of job specialization- for example, specific tasks performed by members of a hospital surgery team, specific meal preparation tasks done by workers in restaurant kitchens, or specific positions played by players on a football or cricket team–is undoubtedly due to the economic advantages cited by Adam Smith. Smith’s emphasis on the principle of specialization showed him to be ahead of his time. He believed that increasing specialization was the key to productivity. Productivity would produce more income, higher wages, larger families, increased demand, and further division of labor and... the cycle would never stop. Smith’s contribution to the literature of economics is only exceeded by his optimism about the predictability of man. The Pleasures of Productivity As we look briefly at the development of the intellectual heritage of management through the ages, we can see a consistent correlation of productive periods with times of capitalism and individual competition. The concepts are for managers and prospective managers in both nonprofit and for-profit organizations. Is it degrading to the profession of management to suggest that effective management practice is primarily common sense and was utilized by primitive people? It is no insult... because common sense is such an uncommon quality in most generations. In fact, some of the most disappointed students ever to emerge from learning institutions are those who think that, by taking a degree in management, they will receive inside knowledge of the secret words and formulas for manipulating people. The truth is that even the best management education curriculum can only hope to sharpen the skills and understanding that students already have. Management in Twentieth Century: The major contribution of the Industrial Revolution was the substitution of machine power for human power, which, in turn, made it more economical to manufacture goods in factories rather than at home. These large, efficient factories using power-driven equipment required managerial skills. Why? Managers were needed to forecast demand, ensure that enough material was on hand to make products, assign tasks © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 2 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU to people, direct daily activities, coordinate the various tasks, ensure that the machines were kept in good working condition and work standards were maintained, find markets for the finished products, and so forth. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became necessary, and the development of large corporations would require formal management practices. The need for a formal theory to guide managers in running these organizations had arrived. However, it wasn’t until the early 1900s that the first major step toward developing such a theory was taken. The development of management theories has been characterized by differing beliefs about what managers do and how they should do it. In the next sections we present the contributions of four approaches. Scientific management looked at management from the perspective of improving the productivity and efficiency of manual workers. General administrative theorists were concerned with the overall organization and how to make it more effective. Then a group of theorists focused on developing and applying quantitative models to management practices. Finally, a group of researchers emphasized human behavior in organizations, or the “people” side of management. Professional Managerial Era In our present age of market driven capitalism and futuristic knowledge driven economic markets, the decisions are made and the trends are set by the professional managers. Unlike their predecessors, the captains of today’s business do not own their own companies. They must know the whole business but have control over only one small part. They must be product oriented, process conscious, financially responsible and public spirited. They must know all things, yet still function as only one cog in the wheel. If the history of management tells us anything, it is that, no matter What happens; peace or war, prosperity or famine, this world will always be in need of good managers... the kind who can get society from “where it is” to “where it wants to be.” Can you be one? Sydney Opera House: Sydney Opera Hall is the milestone of the modern age situated in Sydney, Australia which was completed in a time period of 33 years (1940 – 1973). Sydney Opera hall consists of following: 1000 rooms 5 theaters Hall for 2679 persons Sydney Opera Hall is 183 meter tall and 120 meter wide and its roof carries1, 056,000 tiles which were imported from Sweden and it coasted $ 102 million. What is the purpose to build such a unique hall? They used people and technology to achieve that purpose. The main purpose is to provide entertainment to public. Flying Colors on PC: The most commonly used operating system on PC is also a great example to explain the topic of organized effort done by a modern IT organization. In making of one new version of an operating system, the dozens of engineers are deployed. When the first operating system was launched by the company, it took several years to launch, and today you get an operating system worth of millions on one CD. So, there are the engineers who made the operating system by some processes to give the services to the PC users /customers. The IT organization stands behind its products/services. What is an Organization? “It is an entity where two or more persons work together to achieve a goal or a common purpose.” There are so many organizations around us. Daily we visit and see many organizations hospitals, colleges, factories, farms and government offices. Mosque/Church is also an example of an organization. People go there and say prayers. Activities of praying are to achieve a certain goal. Similarly, any unit in which two or more persons are working together for some purpose is called an organization. People © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Purpose Process POLCA If there is an organization, then there must be some people. They work as whole for a common purpose, so there must be a defined purpose. If an organization doesn’t have any purpose, it will not survive for long run. To achieve the purposes by using people, the processes are needed. Without any process, you cannot achieve any type of purpose or goal. If we see in our daily life, we have some goals. For achieving these goals, we use some processes. So that process is also obvious and important for an organization. The last important thing for any organization is that it requires main pillars of management i.e. POLCA: Planning Organizing Leading Controlling A manager must perform all theses management functions with Assurance! © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 2 MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERS The concepts of organizations, managers, and management are explored in this session. Every organization, regardless of size, type, or location, needs managers who have a variety of characteristics. Managers may come from any nationality or be of either gender. Four questions are addressed: 1. Who are managers? 2. What do managers do? 3. What is management? 4. Why study management? 1. Who are Managers? “A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.” The changing nature of organizations and work has blurred the clear lines of distinction between managers and non-managerial employees. Many workers’ jobs now include managerial activities. Definitions used in the past may no longer work. Hence, an organizational member who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals may be called a manager. However, keep in mind that managers may have other roles and work duties not related to integrating the work of others. You should be aware that managers may have a variety of titles and roles. They perform various jobs and duties and are responsible for higher profits and for great performance. Managers work in various departments and are employed by many types of organization. You will be meeting different managers in this session and note what jobs, roles and work they perform in their organizations, may it be national or multi-national or entrepreneurial organization. 2. What do managers do? No two managers’ jobs are alike. But management writers and researchers have developed some specific categorization schemes to describe what managers do. We can focus on following five categorization schemes while making mind what do managers do: Management functions and management process as detailed below: Traditionally, a manager’s job has been classified according to the following four functions Planning: determining organizational goals and the means for achieving them Organizing: deciding where decisions will be made, who will do what jobs and tasks, and who will work for whom Leading: inspiring and motivating workers to work hard to achieve organizational goals Controlling: monitoring progress towards goal achievement and taking corrective action when needed I. Good managers are those who assure themselves to perform these functions well. II. New-style or 21st century managers are changing the way they perform these functions, thinking of themselves more like mentors, coaches, team leaders, or internal consultants. They work with anyone who can help them accomplish their goals rather than only following the chain of command. They ask others to participate in making decisions and share information with others. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU III. New-style managers perform four functions that have evolved out of the traditional functions: making things happen; meeting the competition; organizing people, projects, and processes; and leading. A. Making Things Happen: To make things happen you must determine what you want to accomplish, plan how to achieve these goals, gather and manage the information needed to make a good decision, and control performance, so that you can take corrective action if performance falls short. B. Meeting the Competition: Free trade agreements, shorter product development cycles, and fewer barriers to entering industries have created increased competition. Companies must consider how to deal with international competitors, have a well-thought-out competitive strategy, be able to embrace change and foster new product and service ideas, and structure their organizations to quickly adapt to changing customers and competitors. C. Organizing People: Projects, and Processes: Changes in how a company is organized must consider both people issues and work processes (how the work gets done) D. Leading: Motivating and inspiring workers. Management process is the set of ongoing decisions and work activities in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead, and control. 1. Managers perform various roles in organizations. 2. While performing, variety of management skills are needed and employed by managers. 3. Regardless of the level the manager is on, he or she must ensure that the work activities in the part of the organizational system he or she is responsible for are coordinated and integrated. 4. Managers must “read” and attempt to interpret the situational contingencies facing them before deciding the best way to work with and through others as they coordinate work activities. What is Management? Simply speaking, management is what managers do. However, this simple statement doesn’t tell us much. We define management as the process of coordinating and integrating work activities so that they are completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. Let’s look at some specific parts of this definition. The process represents the ongoing functions of primary activities engaged in by managers. These functions are typically labeled planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Let us remember it by POLCA. Why Study Management? Management is important for our society, industry and government organizations. The importance of studying management can be explained by looking at the way we interact with organizations every day in our lives. Every product we use, every service we receive, and every action we take is provided or affected by organizations. These organizations require managers. Modern management ensures to create competitive advantage through People: A. Top-performing companies recognize the importance of the way they treat their work forces. B. These companies use ideas such as employee satisfaction, selective recruiting, performance based high wages , reduction of status differences, sharing information, self-managed teams, and training and skill development. C. Investing in people will create long-lasting competitive advantages that are difficult for other companies to duplicate. D. Sound management practices can produce substantial advantages in sales, revenues, and customer satisfaction. E. Poorly performing companies that adopted management techniques as simple as setting expectations, coaching, and rewarding were able to substantially improve return on investment. F. Good management can increase customer satisfaction because employees tend to treat customers the same way that their managers treat them. By studying management, students will be able to recognize good management and encourage it, as well as to recognize poor management and work to get it corrected. After graduation, you will either manage or be managed. A course in management provides insights into the way your boss or peer behave and shall help you to be familiar with the internal working of organizations. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 6 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 3 MANAGERIAL ROLES IN ORGANIZATIONS Management Roles: Managers fulfill a variety of roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors that is associated with a particular office or position. Dr. Henry Mintzberg, a prominent management researcher, says that what managers do can best be described by looking at the roles they play at work. The term management role refers to specific categories of managerial behavior. There are three types of roles which a manager usually does in any organization. Interpersonal roles are roles that involve people (subordinates and persons outside the organization) and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature. The three interpersonal roles include being a figurehead, leader, and liaison. Informational roles involve receiving, collecting, and disseminating information. The three informational roles include a monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson. Decisional roles revolved around making choices. The four decisional roles include entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator. In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different, but highly interrelated roles. Follow-up studies of Mintzberg’s role categories in different types of organizations and at different managerial levels within organizations have generally supported the notion that managers perform similar roles. However, the more traditional functions have not been invalidated. In fact, the functional approach still represents the most useful way of classifying the manager’s job. As depicted in following table, Mintzberg delineated ten managerial roles in three categories. a. Interpersonal roles grow directly out of the authority of a manger’s position and involve developing and maintaining positive relationships with significant others. 1) The figurehead performs symbolic legal or social duties. 2) The Leader builds relationships with employees and communicates with, motivates, and coaches them. 3) The liaison maintains a network of contacts outside the work unit to obtain information. b. Informational roles pertain to receiving and transmitting information so that managers can serve as the nerve centers of their organizational units. 1) The monitor seeks internal and external information about issues that can affect the organization. 2) The disseminator transmits information internally that is obtained from either internal or external sources. 3) The spokesperson transmits information about the organization to outsiders. c. Decisional roles involve making significant decisions that affect the organization. 1) The entrepreneur acts as an initiator, designer, and encourager of change and innovation. 2) The disturbance handler takes corrective action when the organization faces important, unexpected difficulties. 3) The resource allocator distributes resources of all types, including time, funding, equipment, and human resources. 4) The negotiator represents the organization in major negotiations affecting the manager’s areas of responsibility The four major functions of management—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling provide the purpose for managers taking the roles they do. Professor Mintzberg explained his concept with the help of table; it is given on next page: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Mintzberg’s Examples of Identifiable Managerial Roles Role Description Activities Symbolic head: obliged to Greeting visitors: signing Figurehead perform a number of legal documents routine duties of a legal or social nature. Leader Responsible for the Performing virtually all motivation of activities that involve Interpersonal subordinates: responsible subordinates for staffing, training, and associated duties. Liaison Maintains self-developed Acknowledging mail: doing network of outside external board work: contacts and informers performing other activities who provide favors and that involve outsiders information. Monitor Seeks and receives wide Reading periodicals and variety of internal and reports: maintaining personal external information to contacts. develop thorough understanding of organization and environment. Informational Disseminator Transmits information Holding informational received from outsiders or meetings: making phone calls from subordinates to to relay information. members of the organization Spokesperson Transmits information to Holding board meetings: outsiders on organization’s giving information to the plans, policies, actions, media. results, Entrepreneur Searches organization and Organizing strategy and its environment for review sessions to develop opportunities and initiates new programs “improvement projects” to bring about changes Disturbance Responsible for corrective Organizing strategy and handler action when organization review sessions that involve faces important, disturbances and crises unexpected disturbances Decisional Resource Responsible for the Scheduling: requesting allocator allocation of authorization: performing organizational resources of any activity that involves all kinds – making or budgeting and the approving all significant programming of organizational decisions subordinates’ work Negotiator Responsible for Participating in union representing the contract negotiations organization at major negotiations © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 8 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 4 MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS I.E. POLCA POLCA as functions: Planning It is the management function that involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals. And developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Organizing It is the management function that involves the process of determining what tasks are to be done. Who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. Leading It is the management function that involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams as they work, selecting the most effective communication channels, or dealing in any way with employee behavior issues. Controlling It is the management function that involves monitoring actual performance, comparing actual to standard and taking corrective action, if necessary. Assurance Quality function which demands from every manager that he/she ensures that prior management support and management processes are in place before POLC management functions are executed. Management process It is the set of ongoing decisions and work activities in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead, and control. The management process includes more than the four management functions. 1) The process also includes work methods, managerial roles, and managerial work agendas. 2) The management process applies to both profit-making and not-for-profit organizations. a. A not-for-profit organization is an organization whose main purposes center on issues other than making profits. b. Examples of not-for-profit organizational include government organizations, cultural institutions, charitable institutions, and some health-care facilities. Management Process: Planning Organizing Leading Controlling Lead to Defining goals, Determining what Directing and Monitoring Achieving the establishing needs to be done, motivating all activities to ensure organization’s strategy, and how it will be done, involved parties that they are stated purpose developing sub and who is to do it and resolving accomplished as plans to coordinate conflicts planned activities Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Efficiency (Means) Effectiveness (Ends) Resource Goal Usage Attainment Low Waste High Attainment Management Strives For: Low resource waste (high efficiency) High goal attainment (high effectiveness) © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things” – that is, those work activities that will help the organization reach its goals. We have learnt that; a manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. While performing, the manager has to keep in mind that he /she has to deal workers and other people around him in variety of situations. Mistakes Managers Make: A comparison of “arrivers,” those who made it all the way to the top of their companies, and “derailers,” those who were successful early but were knocked off the “fast track,” shows that although both groups had talent and weaknesses, the “derailers” had some fatal flaws. Here are the top ten mistakes made by derailers. 1. Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating, bullying style. 2. Cold, aloof, arrogant. 3. Betrayal of trust. 4. Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, playing politics. 5. Specific performance problems with the business. 6. Over managing: unable to delegate or build a team. 7. Unable to staff effectively. 8. Unable to think strategically. 9. Unable to adapt to boss with different style. 10. Over dependent on advocate or mentor. Successful entrepreneurs have all the managerial and technical competencies along with some key personal attributes to take risk and win through the odd situations. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 10 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 5 MANAGERIAL LEVELS AND SKILLS Level of Managers in an Organization: Top Managers Middle Mangers First-Line Managers Non-managerial Employees First-line managers (or first-line supervisors) are those managers having the least authority and are at the lowest level in the hierarchy of the organization. First-line managers are at the lowest level of management and manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are involved with the production or creation of the organization’s products. They’re often called supervisors but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. They are directly responsible for the work of operating (non- managerial) employees. a Titles often include the term, “supervisor.” b Factors changing the jobs of first-line managers include emphasis upon worker participation and teamwork and the use of computers to regulate many activities formerly regulated by first-line managers. c The jobs of first-line managers are likely to change toward a greater emphasis on dealing with internal human relations. Middle-level managers are those managers beneath the top-levels of the hierarchy and directly supervise other managers below them. It includes all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant managers, or division manager. a. Typical titles include “manager,” “director of,” “chief,” “department head” and “division head.” b. Middle managers are mainly responsible for implementing overall organizational plans so that organizational goals are achieved as expected. c. They plan, allocate resources to meet objectives and coordinate and link groups, departments, and divisions within a company. d. They monitor and manage the performance of the subunits and individual managers who report to them. e. Implement changes or strategies generated by top managers. f. The modern trend of adding layers of middle management is reversing as companies reduce the number of levels in the managerial hierarchy. g. Reducing the number of levels of managers’ results in greater power and responsibility for those managers who remain. h. It is predicted that there will be increasingly less emphasis on hierarchical levels in organization. Top managers are those managers at the very top levels of the hierarchy who have the most authority and who are ultimately responsible for the entire organization. They are those who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board. a. Other titles include “chief executive officer (CEO),” “president,” “executive vice president,” “executive director,” “senior vice president,” and sometimes, “vice president.” b. They oversee overall planning for the organization, work with middle managers in implementing and planning, and maintain overall control over the progress of the organization. c. In those public corporation that sell their stock to the public, top managers’ report to the board of directors whose function is to represent the interests of the stockholders. d. They are responsible for the overall direction of the organization and for creating the context for change. e. They develop in employees the attitudes of commitment to and ownership in the company’s performance and create a positive organizational culture through language and action. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU f. The board of directors appoints the CEO (who sometimes also serves as the Chairman or Chairwoman of the Board). The CEO then appoints the other top managers subject to board approval. Difference in Functions of Management within the Hierarchy: A number of aspects of the management process differ within the hierarchy. The importance of each of the functions of management differs from one managerial level to another. a. Planning tends to be more important for top-level managers. b. Organizing tends to be more important for both top and middle-level managers. c. Leading is more important for first-line managers. d. Controlling is important among all levels of the hierarchy. Management Skills, Knowledge and Performance A. Managers need a knowledge base. This knowledge base provides a context for the manager’s activities. It can include information about an industry and its technology, company policies and practices, company goals and plans, company culture, the personalities of key organization members, and important suppliers and customers. B. Managers need three types of key skills to perform the duties and activities associated with being a manager. a Technical skills are skills that reflect both an understanding of and a proficiency in a specialized field. Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization’s work. b Human skills are associated with a manager’s ability to work well with others both as a member of a group and as a leader who gets things done through others. Because managers deal directly with people, this skill is crucial! Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at all levels of management. c Conceptual skills are skills related to the ability to visualize the organization as a whole, discern interrelationships among organizational parts, and understand how the organization fit into the wider context of the industry, community, and world. Conceptual skills are the skills managers must have to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various submits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. C. The concept of organizational performance was analyzed by Peter Drucker. 1. Effectiveness is the ability to choose appropriate goals and to achieve those goals. 2. Efficiency is the ability to make the best use of available resources in the process of achieving goals. Efficiency is the ration of inputs used to achieve some level of outputs Managing in the 21st century: A. The world of business has changed dramatically in the past generation or so. Technology has shrunk distances; made communications possible in real-time all around the globe; made possible computers with incredibly large memories and super fast speeds; made us more aware of different places, peoples and cultures; and provided businesses with the opportunity to compete in nearly any market in the world. B. Four trends are likely to impact managerial work in the future. 1. Successful managers in the twenty-first century will have to be able to guide their companies through shifts in economic conditions, modifications in customer preferences, rapidly changing technology, and other changes. Increasingly, successful companies will relay on innovation to successfully meet these changes © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU 2. The work force is becoming increasingly diverse. Managers will need to be able to effectively utilize a much broader selection of personnel in the immediate future. Managing diversity is the planning and implementing of organizational systems and practices that maximize the potential of employees to contribute to organizational goals and develop their capabilities unhindered by group identities such as race, gender, age, or ethnic group. In the coming millennium, managers themselves will reflect the emerging diversity and, at the same time, will need to be able to effectively utilize and increasingly diverse work force. 3. Businesses increasingly face global competition; therefore, managers need to have greater knowledge of international business and to develop a global perspective Businesses are also more likely to be operating in more than one county. 4. Quality management programs have become increasingly important and total quality management program aimed at continuous improvement have been implemented in many business. Global competition has created an emphasis for better quality. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 6 MANAGEMENT IDEAS: YESTERDAY AND TODAY The purpose of this lecture is to demonstrate that knowledge of management past history can help you better understand current management theory and practice. Thus, in order to understand the theories and practices used today, it’s important for management students to look at the evolution of management thought and practices. The practice of management has always reflected historical times and societal conditions. Introduction Many current management concepts and practices can be traced to early management theories. The practice of management has always reflected the times and social conditions, so many organizations are responding to technology breakthroughs and developing Web-based operations. These new business models reflect today’s reality: information can be shared and exchanged instantaneously anywhere on the planet. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate that knowledge of management history can help understand today’s management theory and practice. Management’s Connection to Other Fields of Study Management courses have a rich heritage from humanities and social science courses. A. Anthropology—the study of societies, which helps us learn about humans, their activities, and differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior between people in different countries and within different organizations. B. Economics—concerned with the allocation, distribution of scare resources, and understanding the changing economy, as well as the role of competition and free markets in a global context. C. Philosophy—examines the nature of things, particularly values and ethics. D. Political Science—studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment, including structuring of conflict, allocating power in an economic system, and manipulating power for individual self-interest. E. Psychology—science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals. F. Sociology—the study of people in relation to their fellow human beings. Historical Background Of Management There are many examples from past history that illustrates how management has been practiced for thousands of years. A. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are good examples of projects of tremendous scope and magnitude that employed tens of thousands of people. How was it possible for these projects to be completed? The answer is management. B. Other examples of early management practices can be seen through assembly lines, accounting systems, and personnel functions as just a few of the processes and activities in organizations at that time that are also common to today’s organizations. C. Adam Smith, author of the classical economics doctrine, The Wealth of Nations , argued brilliantly about the economic advantages that division of labor (the breakdown of jobs into narrow, repetitive tasks) would bring to organizations and society. D. The Industrial Revolution can be thought of as possibly the most important pre-twentieth- century influence on management. The introduction of machine powers, combined with the division of labor, made large, efficient factories possible. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became necessary. The Birth of Early Management Ideas A. The Evolution of Management Theories Trying to achieve goals through the judicious use of people and resources, getting the others to work toward these goals, and keeping track of whether or not we are accomplishing what we set out to do has been around for centuries. Expressed in © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 14  Principles of Management – MGT503 VU other terms we could say that management is a very old concept. Generally, though, we think of “modern management” and the specific identification of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling being the functions of management as having begun at the end of the 1800s. Most of the contributors we recognize today have been twentieth century people. B. Pre-classical Contributors: These contributors presented their ideas before the late 1800s. 1. Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a British factory owner who advocated concern for the working and living conditions of workers, many of them young children. Many of his contemporaries thought he was a radical for such ideas. 2. Charles Babbage (1792-1871) is considered to be the “father of modern computing.” He foresaw the need for work specialization involving mental work. His management ideas also anticipated the concept of profit sharing to improve productivity. 3. Henry E. Towne (1844-1924) called for the establishment of a science of management and the development of management principles that could be applied across management situations. An assessment of the pre-classical contributors indicates that their efforts were fragmentary. By and large they applied their efforts towards developing specific techniques or solutions. They laid the groundwork for major management theories which came later. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 7 CLASSICAL VIEW OF MANAGEMENT (SCIENTIFIC AND BUREAUCRATIC) Classical Viewpoint is divided into three parts: 1. Scientific management 2. Bureaucratic management 3. Administrative management 1. Scientific Management: Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to define the “one best way” for a job to be done. Important Contributions: Frederick W. Taylor is known as the “father of scientific management”. Taylor’s work at the Bethlehem Steel companies motivated his interest in improving efficiency. 1. Taylor sought to create a mental revolution among both workers and managers by defining clear guidelines for improving production efficiency. He defined four principles of management. 2. His “pig iron” experiment is probably the most widely cited example of scientific management. 3. Using his principles of scientific management, Taylor was able to define the one best way for doing each job. 4. Overall, Taylor achieved consistent improvements in productivity in the range of 200 percent. He affirmed the role of managers to plan and control and of workers to perform as they were instructed. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was the first nationally known management thinker. His “Taylorism” or “scientific management” was a major contribution to business operations as we know them today. The overview of his studies is given below: a Taylor developed scientific management to counter the problem of soldiering by workers— deliberately working below full capacity. b Taylor pioneered the time-and-motion study, where by a work task is broken down into its various motions, is improved by eliminating unnecessary motions, and then the motions timed to determine optimal daily production. c Through his four principles of scientific management, Taylor advocated scientific study of the task to find the best work method rather than relying on traditional methods handed down from one worker to another. d Taylor successfully implemented his theory at Bethlehem Steel in two famous studies involving shoveling and pig-iron handling. e Although real and imagined abuses or misuses of scientific management occurred (leading in one instance to a congressional investigation—and thereby adding to Taylor’s notoriety), Taylor’s strong support of science and his redefining the role of managers remains his primary contribution to management theory. Taylor’s Four Principles of Scientific Management: 1. Study each part of the task scientifically, and develop a best method to perform it. 2. Carefully select workers and train them to perform a task using the scientifically developed method. 3. Cooperate fully with workers to ensure they use the proper method. 4. Divide work and responsibility so management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 16 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (1868-1924 and 1878-1972 respectively): They did studies aimed at eliminating unnecessary motions and way of reducing task fatigue. a. They perfected the time-and-motion study techniques first introduced by Taylor. b. Together they provided the first vocabulary for identifying hand, arm, and body motions used at work—which they called “Therbligs.” c. Lillian’s doctoral dissertation was published as the book, The Psychology of Management, one of the first books published on the findings of psychology in the workplace. d. Frank “proved” the value of motion studies in his own construction company whose productivity was nearly three times better than his competitors who used the older work methods. Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919) One of Taylor’s closest associates is best known for his Gantt chart, a graphic aide to planning, scheduling, and controlling. His other interests included a unique pay incentive system and the social responsibility of business. How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management? To understand why scientific management was viewed as such an important development, you need to look at the times in which Taylor, the Gilbreths, and other scientific management advocates lived. 1. It was important because it could raise countries’ standards of living by making workers more productive and efficient. 2. Also, it’s important to remember that many of the tools and techniques developed by the scientific management practitioners are still used in organizations today. 2. Bureaucratic Management: GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORISTS This group of writers focused on the entire organization. They’re important for developing more general theories of what managers do and what constitutes good management practice. The two most prominent theorists behind the general administrative approach were Henri Fayol and Max Weber. 1. Henri Fayol wrote during the same time period as Frederick Taylor. Fayol was the managing director of a large French coal-mining firm. a. His attention was aimed at the activities of all managers. b. He described the practice of management as distinct from other typical business functions. 2. Max Weber was a German sociologist who wrote in the early part of the 20th century. a. He developed a theory of authority structures and described organizational activity based on authority relations. b. He described the ideal form of organization—the bureaucracy, defined as a form of organization marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships It emphasized the need for organizational rationality rather than the owner’s whims as a means for determining how work should be divided into individual work positions and how the work should be rewarded. Max Weber, the most important early advocate of this approach, argued that too often organizational decisions and rewards were made because of who the worker was (possibly a relative of the manager) or who the worker knew rather than on the performance of the worker. Scientific management focused on the work or the job and how to do it better. Bureaucratic management, on the other hand, focused on how to structure the organization better so that better overall performance might be achieved. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Max Weber (1864-1920) a well known German sociologist coined the term “bureaucracy” to apply to the ideal of large organizations operating on a rational basis. Weber’s original definition was much different than the definition of government red tape and bungling usually associated with the term “bureaucracy” today. Characteristics of Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy The major characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy include: a. Specialization of a labor b. Formalization of rules and procedures c. Impersonality in application of rules and sanctions d. Formalization of lines of authority into a hierarchical structure e. Formalization of the career advancement process to be based on merit The timing of Weber’s contributions is a little confusing. Although he was a contemporary of Taylor and others described as “classical contributors,” Weber’s works weren’t translated into English until the 1940s. Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics are still evident in many of today’s large organizations—even in highly flexible organizations of talented professionals where some bureaucratic mechanisms are necessary to ensure that resources are used efficiently and effectively. Contribution of the classical viewpoint: I. Highlights the need for a scientific approach to management. II. Points out that work methods often can be improved through study. III. Identifies a number of important principles that are useful in running organization efficiently. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 18 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 8 ADMINISTRATIVE VIEW OF MANAGEMENT The Administrative Management It is a term used for those early-day contributors who developed and taught principles to be used by managers, both individually and collectively, to improve the performance of the overall functions of the organization. Henri Fayol (1841-1925) a successful French industrialist, developed theories about management he thought could be taught to those individuals with administrative responsibilities. a. Fayol’s lasting contribution is the functional approach to management which is still used today. The major managerial functions, according to Fayol, were planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. The functions have been slightly modified several times since Fayol. In the main, though, they still provide the basic framework for studying management as witnessed by the organization of this and most other principles of management texts used today. Like Weber, Fayol’s works were not translated into English for a couple of decades after his death. b. Fayol gives us 14 principles of management which are still being used nowadays. These principles are given below: Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management 1. Division of work Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority. Managers must be able to give order. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority, however, goes responsibility. 3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. 4. Unity of Command An employee should receive orders from one superior only. 5. Unity of direction. The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralization. This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. 9. Scalar Chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks is the scalar chain. 10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. 14. Esprit de corps Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 9 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT Behavioral Viewpoint: Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about behavioral views of management, human resources management, motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict management. Early Advocates: Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. These include Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard. 1. Robert Owen, a successful Scottish businessman, proposed a utopian workplace. 2. Hugo Munsterberg created the field of industrial psychology—the scientific study of individuals at work to maximize their productivity and adjustment. 3. Mary Parker Follett was a social philosopher who thought the manager’s job was to harmonize and coordinate group efforts. 4. Chester Barnard, president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, saw organizations as social systems that required human cooperation. a. He believed that managers’ major roles were to communicate and stimulate subordinates to high levels of effort. b. He also introduced the idea that managers have to examine the environment and then adjust the organization to maintain a state of equilibrium. Hugo Munsterbeg (1863-1916) is considered to be the “father of industrial psychology” and is regarded by students of psychology as an important figure as Frederick Taylor is by students of management. Munsterberg attempted to develop practical applications of psychology. He argued that psychologists could help industry in three major areas: a. Finding ways to identify individuals best suited to particular jobs. b. Identifying the psychological conditions for optimum efficiency. c. Finding ways to influence individual behavior to be congruent with management’s objectives Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) brought to management the perspectives of political science and social work. She identified: a. The importance of the functioning of groups, not just individuals, in organization. b. The principle of “power with” rather than “Power over” in management-employee relations. c. Conflict resolution through integration, i.e., finding a solution to a conflict that would satisfy both parties. d. The achievement of integrative unity, whereby the organization operates as a functional whole, with the various interrelated parts working together effectively to achieve organizational goals. The Hawthorne Studies Without question, the most important contribution to the developing Organization Behavior field came out of the Hawthorne Studies, a series of studies conducted at the Western Electric Company Works in Cicero, Illinois. These studies, started in 1924 and continued through the early 1930s, were initially designed by Western Electric industrial engineers as a scientific management experiment. They wanted to examine the effect of various illumination levels on worker productivity. Control and experimental groups were set up with the experimental group being exposed to various lighting intensities, and the control group working under a constant intensity. If you were one of the industrial engineers in charge of this experiment, what would you have expected to happen? That individual output in the experimental group would be directly related to the intensity of the light? Seems perfectly logical, doesn’t it? However, they found that as the level of light was increased in the experimental group, output © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 20 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU for both groups increased. Then, much to the surprise of the engineers, as the light level was decreased the productivity decrease was observed in the experimental group only when the level of light was reduced to that of a moonlit night. What would explain these un -excluded that illumination intensity was not directly related to group productivity, and that something else must have contributed to the results. However, they weren’t able to pinpoint what that “something else” was. In 1927, the Western electric engineers asked Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his associates to join the study as consultants. Thus began a relationship that would last through 1932 and encompass numerous experiments in the redesign of jobs, changes in workday and workweek length, introduction of rest periods, and individual versus group wage plans.9 For example, one experiment was designed to evaluate the effect of a group piecework incentive pay system on group productivity. Hawthorne studies reflected the scientific management tradition of seeking greater efficiency by improving the tools and methods of work—in this case, lighting. 1. In the first set of studies, no correlation was found between changes in lighting conditions and individual work performance. In fact, performance nearly always went up with any change— brighter or darker—in illumination. 2. In the second set of studies, the concept of the Hawthorne effect emerged. The Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may improve their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather than because of any specific factors being tested in the study. 3. The third set of studies centered on group production norms and individual motivation. 4. Although simplistic and methodologically primitive, the Hawthorne studies established the impact that social aspects of the job (and the informal group) have on productivity. Human Relations Movement: This movement was an attempt to equip managers with the social skills they need. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) developed a theory of motivation that was based on three assumptions about human nature. a. Human beings have needs that are never completely satisfied. b. Human behavior is aimed at satisfying the needs that are yet unsatisfied at a given point in time. c. Needs fit into a somewhat predictable hierarchy ranging from basic, lower-level needs to higher- level needs: 1) Physiological (lowest) 2) Safety 3) Belongingness or social 4) Esteem 5) Self-actualization (highest and NOT achieved by everyone) Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) developed the Theory X and Theory Y dichotomy about the assumptions managers make about workers and how these assumptions affect behavior. a. Theory X, managers tend to assume that workers are lazy, need to be coerced, have little ambition, and are focused on security needs. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true. b. Theory Y managers tend to assume that workers do not inherently dislike work, are capable of self-control, have the capacity to be creative and innovative, and generally have higher-level needs that are often not met on the job. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true. c. Workers, like all of us, tend to work up or down to expectations. The Behavioral Science Approach: It emphasizes scientific research as the basis for developing theories about human behavior in organizations that can be used to develop practical guidelines for managers. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU 1. The emphasis is upon developing useful tools for managers. Unlike Scientific Management from the Classical Era, the findings in behavioral studies are often somewhat difficult to find with mathematical certainty. That does not mean however, that the scientific approach should not be attempted nor that the findings of such an approach are any less useful. 2. An example is the idea of improving performance by setting goals the individual finds to be attainable yet not too easy. Contributions of the Behavioral Viewpoint: 1. Spotlight the managerial importance of such factors as communication, group dynamics, motivation, and leaders. 2. Articulates practical applications of behavioral studies. 3. Draws on the findings of a number of disciplines such as management, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics. 4. Highlights the importance of an organization’s members as active human resources rather than passive tools. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 22 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 10 QUANTITATIVE, CONTEMPORARY AND EMERGING VIEWS OF MANAGEMENT Quantitative Approach to Management: The quantitative approach involves the use of quantitative techniques to improve decision making. This approach has also been labeled operations research of management science. It includes applications of statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations. How Do Today’s Managers use the quantitative approach? The quantitative approach has contributed directly to management decision making in the areas of planning and control. For instance, when managers make budgeting, scheduling, quality control, and similar decisions, they typically rely on quantitative techniques. The availability of sophisticated computer software programs to aid in developing models, equations, and formulas has made the use of quantitative techniques somewhat less intimidating for managers, although they must still be able to interpret the results. The quantitative approach, although important in its own way, has not influenced management practice as much as the next one we’re going to discuss–organizational behavior–for a number of reasons. These include the fact that many managers are unfamiliar with and intimidated by quantitative tools, behavioral problems are more widespread and visible, and it is easier for most students and managers to relate to real, day-to-day people problems than to the more abstract activity of constructing quantitative models. Branches in the Quantitative Management Viewpoint: There are three main branches in the Quantitative Management Viewpoint: management science, operations management, and management information systems. 1. Management science (or operations research as it has been called) is an approach aimed at increasing decision effectiveness through the use of sophisticated mathematical models and statistical methods. This is NOT a term to be used synonymously with either the term “Scientific Management” described earlier featuring Taylor and others or “The Science of Management,” a term that usually refers broadly, to a deliberate, rational approach to management issues. 2. Operations Management is the function or field of expertise that is primarily responsible for the production and delivery of an organization’s products and services. 3. Management information systems (MIS) is the name often given to the field of management that focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management Contemporary Viewpoints: This school of thought or view point about management includes those major ideas about managing and organizations that have emerged since the 1950s. Some of the ideas, systems theory for example, are rooted in experiences gained during World War II. 1. The systems theory approach is based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as systems of interrelated parts or subsystems that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals. This will be discussed in more detail in the next session. 2. Contingency Theory is the view that appropriate managerial action depends on the particular parameters of each situation. This approach is in marked contrast to the earliest universal approach stemming from the classical management school which suggested that there was one, and only one, best decision for managers to make which applied in all cases and to all organization, big or little, for profit, or not-for-profit, etc. The generalized corollary to the universal approach is that the secret to successful managing was just to keep looking until that one best solution was “found.” “it all depends”, would be the slogan of contingency theory. The contingency approach applies © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU particularly well in such areas as environmental factors, strategy, organizational design, technology, and leadership. Emerging Views: Now that you’ve got a good understanding of the evolution and past history of management theories and practices, what current concepts and practices are shaping today’s management history and changing the way that managers do their jobs? A. Globalization. Organizational operations no longer stop at geographic borders. Managers in all types and sizes of organizations are faced with the opportunities and challenges of globalization. B. Entrepreneurship refers to the process whereby an individual or a group of individuals uses organized efforts and means to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation and uniqueness. 1. Three important themes stand out in this definition: a. The pursuit of opportunities b. Innovation c. Growth 2. Entrepreneurship will continue to be important to societies around the world. C. Managing in an E-Business World. 1. E-business (electronic business)—a comprehensive term describing the way an organization does its work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with key constituencies in order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals. 2. E-commerce (electronic commerce) is any form of business exchange or transaction in which the parties interact electronically. D. Need for Innovation and Flexibility. 1. The constant flow of new ideas is crucial for an organization to avoid obsolescence or failure. 2. Flexibility is valuable in a context where customers/ needs may change overnight, where new competitors come and go, and where employees and their skills are shifted as need from project to project. E. Quality Management Systems. 1. Total quality management is a philosophy of management that is driven by customer needs and expectations and focuses on continual improvement in work processes 2. TQM was inspired by a small group of quality experts, of whom W. Edwards Deming was one of the chief proponents. He has also developed and presented his quality philosophy and theory of profound knowledge. 3. TQM represents a counterpoint to earlier management theorists who believed that low costs were the only road to increased productivity. 4. The objective of TQM is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement. F. Learning Organizations and Knowledge Management. Managers now must deal with an environment that is continually changing. The successful organizations of the 21st century will be flexible, able to learn and respond quickly, and be led by managers who can effectively challenge conventional wisdom, manage the organization’s knowledge base, and make needed changes. 1. A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously adapt and change. 2. Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others to achieve better performance. G. Theory Z : William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines positive aspects of American and Japanese management into a modified approach aimed at increasing managerial effectiveness while remaining compatible with the norms and values of society and culture. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 24 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU Lesson 11 SYSTEM’S VIEW OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION Managing Systems Another way to look at the manager’s job is from the perspective of managing systems. System: A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. It’s a concept taken from the physical sciences and applied to organizations. The two basic types of systems are Closed systems are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment. Open systems dynamically interact with their environment. Today, when we call organization systems, we mean open systems, that is, an organization that constantly interacts with its environment. The systems theory approach is based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as systems of interrelated parts or subsystems that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals. This will be discussed in more detail in the next session. 1. The major components of a system are: a. Inputs: the various human, materials, financial, equipment, and informational resources required to produce goods and services. b. Transformation processes: the organization’s managerial and technological abilities that are applied to convert inputs into outputs. c. Outputs: the products, services, and other outcomes produced by the organization. d. Feedback: information about results and organizational status relative to its environment. 2. Open versus closed systems. These are terms indicating the relative degree with which a system interacts with its environment. While there are very few, if any, completely open or completely closed systems, we usually view open systems as those having continual interaction with its environment. Closed systems are those with little interaction and feedback from their environments. 3. Two major characteristics of open systems are: a. Negative entropy is the ability of open systems to bring in new energy in the form of inputs and feedback from the environment in order for the organization to delay or to arrest entropy, the decaying process. b. Synergy is the ability of the whole to equal more than the sum of its parts. c. The systems viewpoint suggests that managers are likely to be more successful if they attempt to operate their units as open systems rather than as closed system. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU The Organization as an Open System Environment System Inputs Transformation Outputs Raw Materials Employees’ Work Products and Services Human Resources Activities Financial Results Capital Management Activities Information Technology Technology and Human Results Information Feedback Operations Methods Environment Answer to Test Yourself on Management Viewpoints and Theories!!!! 1. What are some early evidences of management practice? Some early evidences of management practice are the Egyptian pyramids, the Great Wall of China, and the status of Venice as a major economic trade center in the 1400s. 2. Explain why division of labor and the Industrial Revolution were important to the study of management. Division of labor increases productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity, saves time that is commonly lost in changing tasks, and creates labor-saving inventions and machinery. During the Industrial Revolution, business owners were creating large businesses that required formalized management practice. 3. What are the four major approaches to the study of management? The four major approaches to the study of management are scientific, general administrative, quantitative, and organizational behavior. Each is correct and makes an important contribution to our overall understanding of management. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 26 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU 4. What relevance does scientific management have to current management practice? Scientific management is the use of scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done. Its relevance to current management practice is that managers still use many of the techniques developed by Taylor, the Gilbreth, and other practitioners. 5. Describe Frederick W. Taylor’s contributions to scientific management? Frederick Taylor defined four principles of management—develops a science for each element of an individual’s work; scientifically select, train, teach, and develop each worker; cooperate with workers to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of science; and divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. 6. Explain Frank and Lillian Gilbreth’s contributions to scientific management? Frank and Lillian Gilbreth studied work arrangements to eliminate wasteful hand and body motions. They also experimented with the design and use of proper tools and equipment for optimizing work performance. 7. Describe Fayol’s principles of management and how they compare with Taylor’s? Henri Fayol’s principles of management were division of work, authority, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, order, equity, and stability of tenure of personnel, initiative, and esprit de corps. In contrast to Taylor’s principles, Fayol’s focused on the entire organization and not just the individual worker. 8. What did Weber contribution to the general administrative theories of management? Max Weber described an ideal type of organization called a bureaucracy, characterized by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships. Rules and controls were to be applied uniformly, avoiding involvement with individual personalities and preferences of employees. 9. Explain how the quantitative approach evolved and how it has contributed to the field of management. The quantitative approach, also called operations research or management science, is the use of quantitative techniques to improve decision making, and it evolved out of the development of mathematical and statistical solutions to military problems during World War II. After the war, many quantitative techniques that had been used for military problems were applied to the business sector. The quantitative approach has added another dimension to the evolution of management practice and thinking and has contributed most directly to management decision making in planning and control. 10. What is organizational behavior? Organizational behavior is the field of study concerned with the actions or behavior of people at work. 11. What were some of the contributions of the early advocates of OB? Early advocates of the OB approach were Robert Owen, who proposed an idealized workplace where work hours would be regulated, child labor outlawed, public education and meals provided, and business involved in community projects; Hugo Munsterberg, who created the field of industrial psychology, the study of individuals at work to maximize their productivity and adjustment; Mary Parker Follett, who thought that organizations should be based on a group ethic rather than on individualism to release individual potential; and Chester Barnard, who saw organizations as social systems that required human cooperation. 12. Describe the H awthorne studies and their contribution to management practice. The Hawthorne studies, conducted at the Western Electric Company Works in Cicero Illinois, from 1924 through the early 1930s, exposed an experimental group of workers to various lighting intensities while providing a control group with constant intensity. As the level of light was increased in the experimental group, the output of both groups increased. The series of studies led to a new emphasis on the human behavior factor and helped change the dominant theme of the time that employees were not different from any other machines the organization used. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27 Principles of Management – MGT503 VU 13. H ow is globalization affecting the way managers do their jobs? Management is no longer constrained by national borders, and managers in organizations of all sizes and types around the world are faced with the opportunities and challenges of operating in a global market. 14. What is workforce diversity, and what implications does it have for managers? Workforce diversity exists when workers are more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age, and other characteristics that reflect their differences. It’s an important issue because as more women, minorities, elderly, and immigrants enter the job market in the first part of the 21st century, monumental changes are predicted in the workplace. 15. Discuss the three important themes in the definition of entrepreneurship? First, is the pursuit of opportunities, because entrepreneurship is about pursuing environmental trends and changes that no one else has seen or paid attention to. Second, is innovation, because entrepreneurship involves changing, revolutionizing, transforming, and introducing products or services or new ways of doing business. Third, is growth, because entrepreneurs are not content to stay small or to stay the same in size. 16. H ow is e-commerce different from e-business, and what are the main forms of e-commerce transactions? E-business is more than e-commerce, although e-business can include e-commerce. E-business is a comprehensive term describing the way an organization does its work by using electronic linkages with its key constituencies. The main forms of e-commerce transactions are business-to-business, business-to-consumer, consumer-to-consumer, and government-to-business. 17. Describe the three categories of e-business involvement. The three main categories of e-business are: enhanced—using the Internet to enhance but not replace traditional ways of doing business; enabled—using the Internet to perform its traditional business functions better, but not to sell anything; total—whole existence is made possible by and revolves around the Internet. 18. Why should managers be concerned about innovation and flexibility? Without a constant flow of new ideas an organization is doomed to obsolescence or failure. Also, flexibility is required in a context where customers/needs may change overnight, where new competitors come and go quickly, and where employees and their skills are shifted as needed from project to project 19. What is TQM, and how is it affecting manager’s jobs? TQM is a philosophy of management driven by continual improvement and response to customer, employee, and supplier needs and expectations. It encompasses employees and suppliers as well as the people who purchase the organization’s goods or services. The objective of managers is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement in work processes. 20. H ow does knowledge management fit into the concept of a learning organization? A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change. Knowledge man