Media Studies AS Paper 1 - Media Contexts - PDF

#Media Studies AS Paper 1 - Section B: MEDIA CONTEXTS (25 marks)  One question is to be answered from a choice of two  We are focusing on the FILM INDUSTRY – you do not need to discuss any other media industry  You must be able to discuss the film industry from the perspective of...

#Media Studies AS Paper 1 - Section B: MEDIA CONTEXTS (25 marks)  One question is to be answered from a choice of two  We are focusing on the FILM INDUSTRY – you do not need to discuss any other media industry  You must be able to discuss the film industry from the perspective of INSTITUTIONS (thinking about the structure of film companies, the ways that films are produced/made, how they are distributed and marketed) and AUDIENCES (how we consume films) – a large focus of this will be on the ways that developments in technology have changed the ways that films are made, marketed/promoted/advertised and watched (produced, distributed and exhibited/consumed)  We will look at Disney as our main case study, but we will also make reference to smaller, British film companies or American Independent film companies or films (as a contrast)  5 marks are available for the use of appropriate terminology – therefore, you must frequently use the terms I teach you throughout your essays  10 marks are available for the use of examples – every time you make a point, it is crucial that you use examples to support these points. These might include the names  of film companies, the names of films, examples of marketing campaigns etc  10 marks are available for analysis and evaluation – you must make comments analysing and evaluating the reasons WHY the production, marketing and consumption of films has changed, and WHAT EFFECT this is having on the companies that make and market films, and the audiences who consume them In short, you should be prepared to discuss the processes of production, distribution (how the films ‘reach’ their audience) and marketing (which is part of distribution) as they relate to contemporary media institutions (in our case film companies owned by large multimedia conglomerates and smaller, British and American independent film companies not owned by large multimedia conglomerates, as well as the nature of audience consumption (how we watch the films we see – where and how) and the relationships between audiences and institutions (in terms of marketing) Questions in the exam will be based on the following statements, outlined in the specification. The wording used in these statements will appear in the questions (just reordered, so that they form a question). Therefore, it is important that when we have completed the notes on this topic, you look back at the following statements and organise your material so that you can use it to answer questions based on EACH one of these statements. Remember, a lot of the material for one question will also be relevant for other questions:   the issues raised by media ownership and funding in contemporary media practice  the importance of cross-media convergence and synergy in production, distribution and marketing  the technologies that have been introduced in recent years at the levels of production, distribution, marketing and at the point of consumption  the significance of the spread of such technologies for institutions and audiences  the importance of technological convergence for institutions and audiences  the issues raised in the targeting of national and local audiences by international or global institutions  the ways in which the candidates’ own experiences of media consumption illustrate wider patterns and trends in audience behaviour. You must use contemporary examples of films and film companies (ideally from the last five years) – though it is fine for you to use some historical examples as long as they support the points you are making. In relation to film this means a study of specific studios or production companies, including patterns of production, distribution (marketing and the ways that films ‘reach’ their audience), exhibition and consumption by audiences. This should be accompanied by study of contemporary film distribution practices (digital cinemas, DVD/Blu-ray, 3D, downloads, streaming) and their impact upon the production, marketing and consumption of films. Key Terms  Institutional Convergence – the coming together of many different media companies under one umbrella  Multimedia Conglomerates – large parent companies owning smaller companies in a range of media sectors (such as The Walt Disney Company – IT IS FINE TO REFER TO THIS AS DISNEY) who dominate the contemporary media industry  Oligopoly – the control of an industry by a small number of companies (essentially a monopoly but with a few companies rather than just one)  Vertical Integration – a company that controls everything from top to bottom (such as a film company that produces films, distributes/markets those films and owns the platforms – such as cinemas/TV networks/streaming services – to show those films)  Horizontal Integration – a company that owns lots of different media companies so that they can take a brand – such as Star Wars – and platform it out across lots of different types of media forms (films, video games, TV programmes, books, comics, soundtrack albums and even merchandise)  Synergy – the taking of a brand – such as Star Wars – and platforming it out across lots of different types of media to generate multiple revenue streams. In marketing terms, synergy refers to an orchestrated marketing campaign across lots of platforms (traditional forms of marketing and viral marketing using the Internet and social media) that works  together. Here, the release of other products (such as video games, music videos and merchandise) help sell the film to audiences  Revenue Streams – different ways to generate income from a brand through the release of related products  Technological Convergence – the creation of devices (such as smartphones, games consoles, tablets, laptops, PCs, smart TVs) which enable consumers to access all types of media (as a result of Internet connection)  Media Hubs – a way of describing the devices mentioned above  On-Demand Access – accessing media texts instantly, whenever the consumer wants  Streaming – accessing media texts online via the Internet (this has become the most common way that consumers access media texts such as music, films and even video games) giving the audience much more freedom  Digital Natives – a term used to describe audiences who have grown up with the Internet and see streaming/downloading as the most common way of accessing media  Tangibility/Intangibility – tangible media products are products that the audience can touch (DVDs, Blu-ray, CDs, video games in disc or cartridge forms, print magazines or newspapers which are commonly preferred by older audiences). Intangible media products are digital, accessed online by younger audiences who do not feel that they need to ‘own’ the media text  Viral Marketing – marketing online using the Internet and social media. This is particularly important for low-budget films  made by companies with limited resources to spend on traditional marketing (which can be prohibitively expensive) THOUGH large multimedia conglomerates also use viral marketing as it directly targets their demographic (a young audience and the 15-24 market)  Global Village – being able to access media anywhere in the world as a result of the Internet  Piracy – illegal streaming or downloading of media texts by consumers, leading to a huge loss in potential revenue for media producers  Portability/On-The-Move Access – accessing media on the move from devices that are portable such as smartphones, tablets and laptops  User-Generated Content – media content produced by consumers as a result of developments in technology and affordable equipment  Prosumer – the name for a consumer who because of developments in technology is now able to produce, and distribute, media texts  Exchange – the consumption of a media text by the audience (how it reaches us, how we use it) The Structure of Disney (a multimedia conglomerate) * The Walt Disney Company now also owns the film company Searchlight Pictures and numerous subscription video-on-demand streaming services such as Star+ (for the Latin American market), ESPN+, Hulu and Hotstar (for the Indian market) The contemporary film industry is dominated by a number of large recognisable film companies such as Universal, Warner Brothers, Walt Disney Pictures, 20th Century Fox and Paramount. These film studios make the most profitable movies, which often feature A-list stars, belong to recognisable genres and are packed full of exciting and expensive special effects and CGI. Each of these film companies is owned by a larger parent company known as a multimedia conglomerate. Currently there are six multimedia conglomerates – WarnerMedia/AT&T, Sony, ViacomCBS, Fox, Comcast and The Walt Disney Company. Each of these multimedia conglomerates is structured in a similar way and alongside owning film companies each conglomerate owns other media companies across a range of media sectors, including television networks and streaming services, music companies, video games companies, print publishing companies (including newspapers, magazines, comics and books) and a range of other assets such as theme parks, hotels, sporting franchises and retail outlets that sell a range of merchandise. It is this structure that explains the power and control that this oligopoly of multimedia conglomerates has over the film and entertainment industry. Owning different companies across a range of different media sectors enables synergy – the taking of a brand and platforming it out across different types of media (making a film, but also video games, books and comics, TV shows and soundtrack albums). It is possible to argue that the structure of these multimedia conglomerates determines the types of films that get made – those that can be easily turned into a videogame, or a spin-off TV series (such as those related to the Marvel Cinematic Universe made by Disney, including Loki, Hawkeye and Wandavision) and ones that might suit a making of artwork book and a range of merchandise (such as costumes and toys). This structure generates multiple revenue streams and frequently more profit is generated from these associated platforms and merchandise than is generated from the film itself. A consumer may spend roughly £10 on a cinema ticket but it is possible they could spend considerably more on a related videogame (approximately £40) a making of book (upwards of £25) and merchandise (Lego sets related to films often cost in excess of £100 for example). Arguably the most powerful of these horizontally integrated multimedia conglomerates is The Walt Disney Company. The Walt Disney Company owns some of the biggest and most profitable film companies, including: o Walt Disney Pictures which makes Disney’s live action movies such as films from the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise (for which nine different video games were released), the live action remakes of the classic Disney cartoons such as The Jungle Book, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, Dumbo, The Lion King and Mulan, Alice in Wonderland and other live action features such as Oz the Great and Powerful, Mary Poppins Returns, Jungle Cruise and Cruella. These films are effects- driven, full of CGI and special effects and appeal to slightly older audiences than their traditional animations (which are aimed at young children). Audiences are encouraged to see these kinds of films at the cinema, possibly in 3D or at the IMAX – these films are incredibly successful at the box-office often taking over $1 billion, partly as a result of the higher ticket prices for IMAX and 3D screenings. These films are also ideal for synergy – often there are video games, TV spin-offs, soundtrack albums, coffee table books and merchandise produced on the back of the film’s release at the cinema. o Walt Disney Animation Studios which makes the traditional animated movies, including the ‘Disney Classics’ aimed at a family audience such as Frozen (2013), Mulan (1998), Hercules (1997), Pocahontas (1995), The Lion King (1994). These films are reasonably successful at the box-office (though not as profitable as many of the live action films) often taking in excess of $500 million, but are perhaps most successful in relation to related merchandise sold at The Disney Store (The Walt Disney Company’s retail division) including cuddly toys, stationary, costumes, action figures and a whole range of other items. o Pixar which makes CGI animation, such as Toy Story, The Incredibles, Finding Nemo, Cars, Up, Monsters Inc and Soul (which received a Christmas 2020 release on Disney+ instead of a theatrical release, which had been delayed as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic). These films often appeal to a broader audience than just children as they also incorporate themes and ideas that appeal to an older demographic. These films showcase developments in technology and a shift from hand-drawn animation to digital animation and CGI. They are also perfect films for synergy – most of the films mentioned were platformed out as video games with particular appeal to pre-teen audiences. o Marvel Studios makes films from the superhero genre (currently the most popular and financially successful genre) based on Marvel comic book characters – The Avengers franchise and franchises for Iron Man, Thor,  Guardians of the Galaxy, Captain America and Ant-man – all of which have had numerous sequels. Disney purchased Marvel Studios for approximately $5 billion and whilst this appears to be very expensive the reality is that Disney made its money back through box- office and related merchandise after only a handful of films, as most of these films took over $1 billion at the global/worldwide box- office. These movies also make considerably more on related merchandise and associated media products. Many Marvel films (or characters popularised through the films) have spin-off, live action and animated, TV series (including Loki, Hawkeye, The Falcon and the Winter Soldier, Wandavision and the upcoming She-Hulk, Moon Knight and Ms. Marvel), alongside video games and merchandise including costumes, action figures, toys, trading cards and expensive collectables (which are aimed at an older audience). These films definitely appeal to a young audience but also appeal to older audiences (through nostalgia) who have grown up with the characters through comic books they read as children. o Lucasfilm makes the Star Wars franchise, which is arguably one of the most successful movie franchises of all time, both in terms of box-office takings (over $1 billion on average per film) and particularly merchandise. Disney purchased Lucasfilm for roughly $4.5 billion and along with the films produced by Marvel Studios, the Star Wars movies are the perfect vehicles to exploit synergy, including spin-off TV shows such as The Mandalorian, The Book  of Boba Fett and the upcoming Andor, Obi- Wan Kenobi and Lando. There are a number of benefits to Disney owning TV channels, networks and subscription streaming services (such as Disney+). Firstly, these are platforms upon which Disney can show the films that their film companies produce, often exclusively. These television channels frequently show spin-off series based on the films that Disney makes (Agents of Shield, The Flash, Loki, Hawkeye, The Falcon and the Winter Soldier, Wandavision). Disney are able to charge a premium for advertising space during the advertising breaks in these shows and before and after the films that they broadcast, generating further revenue streams related to the films they produce. By owning a range of TV channels that appeal to different demographics, Disney can ensure that they target their marketing at the most appropriate audiences. For example, films aimed at a young/family audience are more likely to be advertised on the Disney Channel whereas movies that may appeal to a slightly older audience are more likely to be advertised on channels such as ESPN. Disney have recently launched their subscription streaming service Disney+ (alongside a number of other subscription streaming services), which will exclusively show movies made by the film companies that The Walt Disney Company own and spin-off TV shows made specifically for this platform such as The Mandalorian and The Book of Boba Fett (TV shows featuring a well known character from the Star Wars universe) and Loki, Hawkeye and Wandavision (TV shows featuring well known characters from the Marvel universe). TV advertising can be incredibly expensive and owning a number of TV networks means that film companies can advertise their films, and merchandise related to those films, on the networks that the parent company owns. Subscription streaming services generate revenue through the monthly/annual fees charged to the consumer and Premier Access where subscribers can watch newly released films for an additional fee (such as Black Widow, Cruella and Jungle Cruise) (as of October 2021 the service has over 118 million global subscribers). Owning music publishing companies used to be a way for a multimedia conglomerate, such as Disney, to generate extra revenue through the sales of soundtrack albums from the films they produced. Changes in audience practice as a result of advancements in digital technology (file- sharing, illegal downloading and streaming music through subscription services such as Spotify and Apple Music) has meant that this revenue stream has declined dramatically. The real benefit of owning music publishing companies today is that film companies are able to use music produced by artists that are managed by record companies owned by the multimedia conglomerate (securing the rights to music, particularly by well-known artists, can be phenomenally expensive). Owning video games development companies also has a number of benefits for the multimedia conglomerate. On average, video games cost approximately £40 and the release of a film- related video game can generate significant revenue for the parent company. The majority of films that Disney makes are tailor-made for the release of accompanying video games belonging to the action, super-hero and sci-fi genres (Star Wars, Marvel characters). Frequently, video games are released based on the animated films produced by Disney and Pixar, which target a much younger audience than many of the video games on the market. Until relatively recently LucasArts and Marvel Games (both companies owned by the multimedia conglomerate) produced spin-off games linked to the films Lucasfilm and Marvel Studios produced. Now, however, both companies have ceased video game production and have instead licensed games with third party games developers (such as EA and TT Games). Whilst this has reduced the revenue generated through the sale of video games (that would have previously gone directly back to Disney), the company still takes a high percentage of the revenue generated by sales of games related to the films they produce. Increasingly, mobile games (in the form of apps) are becoming popular and whilst the revenue generated through adverts and in-app purchases is relatively small (compared to the sales of games on the Xbox and Playstation) the release of these games have other significant benefits to Disney and the films that they make. Apps are released prior to the release of these films at the cinema, often relatively early in the films’ marketing campaigns and therefore act as a form of marketing for the films. These games, very specifically, target the precise demographic that the films are aimed at. Owning print publishing companies also enable Disney to generate further revenue streams. Marvel Press produce comic books related to the characters that appear in the Marvel films and the release of these films generates interest from new audiences in older comic books featuring those characters. The majority of films that Disney produce are full of visual effects, multiple characters and locations and a range of props, costumes and vehicles. It is precisely these kinds of movies that Disney focus on producing that are tailor-made for coffee table-sized making of artwork books (which cost anywhere from £20- £100). In addition to revenue generated from the release of films and associated media, perhaps the largest revenue stream comes from the merchandise that Disney produce in relation to the films they make. Again, the nature of the films Disney makes (and the age of the audience that these films appeal to) means that there is huge potential for a broad range of products – clothing including costumes and fashion items, trading cards, toys, stationary, lunch boxes, board games etc – almost all of which cost the consumer far more than the price of a cinema ticket. Further revenue on the back of the success of these movies is generated at theme parks owned by Disney across the world, which feature rides based on characters and scenes from Disney movies and are also dominated by shops selling the merchandise mentioned above. It is precisely because of the way that multimedia conglomerates, such as Disney, are structured that they continue to have such a stranglehold over the film industry. As a result of generating multiple revenue streams through synergy, film companies owned by Disney are able to continue making huge blockbusters with production budgets in excess of $200million and are able to continue to spend the same amount on marketing those films to ensure that they are a success at the box-office. Because of the money conglomerates like Disney are able to spend on marketing it is inevitable that large cinema chains will choose to exhibit their films. Because of the nature of the films Disney produce, they are also able to dictate the percentage of box-office takings they receive (often upwards of 90% of revenue generated from ticket sales in the first weeks of a film’s release). Disney’s recent move into the subscription streaming sector (with Disney+) suggests that the company is keen to dominate in this area also, in order to maximise the profits that can be made as a result of changing consumer practice. CASE STUDY – Frozen and Frozen II A perfect example of synergy in action, that highlights the amount of revenue that can be generated on the back of a successful movie, can be seen with Disney’s Frozen franchise and the release of the films Frozen (2013) and Frozen II (2019). Collectively, the movies have taken over $2.7 billion at the global box-office from a collective budget of $300 million (roughly $150 million per movie). Numerous video games linked to both films have been released, including Frozen: Olaf’s Quest on the Nintendo DS and 3DS, Frozen: Free Fall (Disney Mobile) on IOS, Android, Windows Phone and the PS4, 6 mini-games on Disney’s website, Frozen: Free Fall - Snowball Fight on PS4 and Xbox and a number of mobile games released just prior to the release of the movie Frozen II. Additionally, characters from the film were released as figures for the toy-based video game Disney Infinity, with a world based on the locations in Frozen appearing in the video game Kingdom Hearts 3. Sony even released a limited edition Frozen-themed PS4 console in Japan. Whilst not all of these games are made by companies owned by Disney themselves, owning the rights to the characters is still incredibly profitable. Both of the films in the Frozen franchise, alongside adverts for the video game spin-offs, were televised across the Disney-owned TV networks. In addition, characters from the Frozen franchise appeared as an integral part of the storyline to a TV series Once Upon a Time produced by, and shown, on ABC (a TV network owned by Disney). In the run up to the release of both films, documentaries about the making of the films also appeared on ABC, helping market the films to their target audience (including The Story of Frozen: Making a Disney Animated Classic). In the build up to the release of both of these films, and during the time each film was in the cinema, numerous adverts for merchandise related to the films also appeared on ABC and the Disney Channel (both promoting the merchandise but also acting as marketing for the films). An animated TV programme called Arendelle Castle Yule Log was released on Disney+ on December 2019; exclusive content only available to subscribers to Disney’s streaming service. A number of short films featuring characters from Frozen and Frozen II were also shown on ABC including Frozen Fever and Olaf’s Frozen Adventure. The Frozen franchise contains many songs that have achieved success outside of the films themselves. The most famous of these, Let It Go, was the fifth highest selling single of 2014 and the Frozen soundtrack was the best selling album in the same year, selling over 10 million copies. The soundtrack albums of films like these can be a valuable source of further revenue (though the importance of music sales has decreased in recent years with the rise in subscription services such as Spotify and Apple Music). The franchise has generated revenue through ticket sales for Disney on Ice, a Broadway musical based on the film and a wide range of merchandise sold online and through the Disney store. Merchandise includes: dolls of the main characters, children’s costumes for all of the main characters, cuddly toys, home décor (pillow cases, duvets, blankets), bubble bath and shampoo, slippers, sporting goods, swimming pool toys (inflatables), food items (yoghurt and juice), bandages, plasters and toothpaste, backpacks and even expensive fine art purchased for $100,000s by private art collectors. There was a monopoly set, wigs, water bottles, luggage and Lego sets, alongside DVDs and blu-rays. For many of the types of films Disney produce, significantly more revenue is generated from this type of merchandise than from the films themselves. Disney and Marketing (the most significant part of distribution) In many ways the merchandise produced for films made by Disney acts as a form of marketing for the release of those films (alongside generating extra revenue streams). Frequently, certain types of merchandise are strategically released before the films appear in the cinema, generating an additional buzz ahead of the film’s release. Prior to the theatrical release of Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019) and Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi (2017) numerous products were released ahead of the film including action figures, promotional postage stamps and a range of toys – all of which helped generate a buzz around the films ahead of their release in cinemas. Large multimedia conglomerates, such as Disney, spend roughly the same amount on marketing as they do on the production budget of the films they make (often in excess of $200 million). These conglomerates combine traditional forms of marketing with online viral marketing. Traditional forms of marketing include:  teaser posters and teaser trailers (which often come out over a year before the film’s release and are shown in cinemas and revealed online on the film’s website and social media pages)  a range of character posters and a final poster before the film’s theatrical release (and often different posters for different formats, for example 3D or IMAX)  a number of theatrical trailers (shown a few weeks before the film’s release) and TV spots (shown in the week before the film appears in cinemas) – both appear online on the official websites and are circulated via social media  as well as appearing more traditionally in cinemas and on television  billboards on busy roads and on the sides of buses  free publicity with articles, previews and reviews in film magazines, on the radio and on TV  red-carpet events such as premieres  for big-budget films made by companies like Disney it is likely they will create a Big Game Spot to be shown during the Super Bowl (30 seconds of advertising space will cost in excess of $6 million). The Jungle Book, released by Disney in 2016, is a good example of a film that used traditional forms of marketing. A number of teaser trailers were produced alongside three theatrical trailers that were shown in cinemas ahead of other Disney films, and other animated movies made by different production companies, which have the same target audience. There were a number of TV spots, many of which focused on individual characters, released on TV in the two weeks before the film was released in the cinema. There was also a Big Game TV Spot shown at half time of the Super Bowl (this advert was over two minutes long which suggests the cost of buying this advertising space was well in excess of $6 million). Over twenty different posters for the film were produced and numerous articles were written over a year before the film’s release, discussing the films development, special effects and the use of CGI (appearing in film magazines such as Empire and Total Film and a range of newspapers). Similar traditional marketing campaigns took place for other films produced by Disney such as, Avengers: Endgame and Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker. In addition to this kind of traditional marketing, big-budget movies, released by conglomerates like Disney, often have tie-ins or promotional campaigns with other companies. Promotional campaigns for The Jungle Book included a tie-in with fashion retailer Kenzo, who produced a limited edition line of clothing inspired by the characters, and a promotional campaign with Air B&B in America which offered $100 off the price of treehouses. For Avengers: Endgame promotional partners included MasterCard, Audi, McDonalds, Coca-Cola and Google. Viral Marketing One consequence of developments in technology is the increase of viral marketing. Viral marketing is relatively cheap compared to traditional forms of marketing and is much more efficient in targeting the young audience that the majority of films made by Disney are aimed at. Viral marketing is commonly associated with lower-budget movies that often have little finance left (after production) to successfully market their films. The Blair Witch Project, released in 1999, cost just $35,000 to make but took over $250 million at the box-office, thanks largely to an innovative viral marketing campaign on the Internet that included video footage from the characters’ parents, missing persons’ reports and newspaper articles; all implied that events in the film were real. However, big-budget films made my multimedia conglomerates such as Disney also have innovative viral marketing campaigns because their target audience continuously use the Internet and social media via their phones, laptops, home computers, games consoles and tablets. Every film released by Disney in the recent past has had a Facebook page and Twitter feed (often not only for the film, but also for individual characters from the film) alongside Snapchat and Instagram accounts; this is in addition to official websites for the movies. Any new posters or trailers for the films are often ‘leaked’ online and quickly shared amongst/by the audience (ahead of the ‘official’ release of these marketing materials). Examples of viral marketing for recent Disney films include the creation of an immersive world on Facebook that featured Kaa the snake, from The Jungle Book, which took users on a virtual tour of the jungle that would feature in the film (this was in advance of the release of the movie and coincided with the release of a number of the film’s trailers). Snapchat was also used to promote The Jungle Book with Disney uploading interactive movie posters, featuring different characters from the film, which were then shared by users via social media. Marvel has 32.5 million followers on Instagram and used the platform to create teasers for the audience ahead of the release of Avengers: Endgame. The five biggest stars of Avengers: Endgame (the final movie of the franchise), including Robert Downey Jr., Scarlett Johansson and Chris Hemsworth, have over 30 million Twitter followers and roughly 50 million Instagram followers. Alongside Marvel’s official social media platforms, fans of the franchise received information about the movie from the actors’ social media accounts. Global, National and Local Marketing The film industry (particularly the Hollywood film industry) is undoubtedly global. On average over two-thirds of the revenue generated at the box- office for movies made by conglomerates such as Disney comes from ticket sales outside of the USA. If companies like Disney were to rely solely on revenue generated from the domestic box-office, the films they make would frequently fail to break even at the box-office (once the film’s marketing budget has been added to the production budget). It is crucial, therefore, that marketing is adapted to target the different territories across the globe. Conglomerates, such as Disney have offices situated in territories around the globe and tailor their marketing in these territories so that advertising appeals to national audiences. One of the ways that Disney has ensured global success is through its acquisitions of companies (such as Pixar, Lucasfilm, Marvel and, most recently, 20th Century Fox) which own globally popular brands (for example Star Wars, Marvel characters, Toy Story and The Simpsons). Certain choices regarding the movies they produce are taken with the global market in mind, such as Disney’s decision to produce a live action remake of Mulan aimed, in particular, at the increasingly lucrative Chinese box-office. By the time Disney opened its first store in China in 2015, there were over 200 stores in North America, more than 40 stores in Japan and more than 70 stores across Europe. These stores generate vast revenue streams but their global presence also act as a form of marketing for the release of new Disney films. Disney currently operates six resorts (two in the USA – California and Florida – one in Paris, France, one in Shanghai, China, one in Hong Kong and one in Tokyo, Japan) and twelve theme parks across the world, creating and reinforcing the company’s global presence through, for example, theme park rides based on Disney films, film franchises and iconic characters related to the films the production companies owned by Disney make (such as Star Wars, Marvel characters and characters featured in the company’s live action movies and animated films). Again, these resorts and theme parks generate huge revenue streams for the multimedia conglomerate but also help globally promote forthcoming Disney film releases (the parks are full of posters, billboards and merchandise promoting forthcoming releases). Some recent examples of Disney tailoring their marketing of certain films to audiences in territories outside of the USA include:  When Disney Animation’s Moana was released in France in 2016, Disney renamed the film Vaiana to build upon the country’s Polynesian connection, also including an end- credit music piece that the company shot, live-action, in French Polynesia (118 islands in the South Pacific under French control). Moana was the number one animated film at the French box-office in 2016. The movie was also dubbed into the Tahitian language, the Hawaiian language and the Maori language and marketed to those audiences using the most appropriate cultural references in the film. Disney entered a partnership with Hawaiian Airlines who advertised the film on the sides of their planes – specifically targeting a particular national audience  When the Pixar movie, Inside Out, was released in Germany (in September 2015), Disney altered the format of their marketing campaign so that it would appeal to adults (an  important demographic for animated films in the country), placing trailers and clips from the film into big music festivals across the summer. Disney worked with local German TV comedy writers to create new social media content exclusive for the German audience that tapped into the comic elements of the film (research by Disney had found that the key to success with animated films in Germany was humour). Inside Out was the number one animated movie in Germany in 2015  When the Pixar film Finding Dory (2016) was released in the UK, Disney created a marketing campaign that was specifically targeted at UK audiences (and in particular, adults who had been children thirteen years earlier when Finding Nemo had been released). Disney used key platforms to access an audience they dubbed ‘generation Nemo’ by creating bespoke content that tapped into typically British events, or events that had a lot of interest in the UK such as Wimbledon, the European Football Championships, festivals including Glastonbury, Lovebox and Latitude, the Olympics (when the diving pool turned mysteriously green in Brazil, Disney turned elements of their campaign green to show Dory swimming through algae) and the British weather. Finding Dory was the number one animation in the UK in 2016  When Marvel released Avengers: Age of Ultron in Italy, Disney were concerned about the lack of popularity of superhero movies and the sci-fi genre in the country and tailored their marketing campaign to try to overcome  this resistance. Disney worked in partnership with the football team Juventus (in an attempt to target the football-loving male Italian audience) to create a series of short social media content elements where very high- profile Italian footballers played around with some of the iconography of the Avengers (Iron Man’s mask, Hulk’s giant fists, Captain America’s shield etc). The campaign appealed to young adult males, who were perhaps not the biggest superhero fans  When Disney released the animated film Brave (set in Scotland) they collaborated with VisitScotland (Scotland’s tourist board) on a campaign that not only promoted the film but also promoted Scottish tourism. A series of TV and cinema adverts and a strong social media campaign targeted Scottish and UK audiences through promoting Scotland by emphasising the country’s scenery, Scottish humour and Scottish culture  Ahead of Disney’s release of the live-action remake of Beauty and the Beast (2017) the studio partnered with a number of companies ahead of the film’s UK launch to help promote the film in this country. In partnership with O2 (a mobile phone service provider in the UK) Disney offered a free six-month subscription to streaming service DisneyLife to customers buying a Sony Xperia smartphone and promoted the film through digital, social, mobile and point of sale campaigns (in their UK stores). The washing powder Persil sold 1.9 million promotional packs which included a £5 Disney Store voucher (with the boxes featuring images from the film which tied in with other images used across the film’s marketing). UK comparison website company, comparethemarket.com, launched a campaign featuring the film to promote its Meerkat Movies 2-for-1 cinema ticket initiative and Hamptons International (a UK estate agent) launched a print and digital campaign related to the film inviting consumers to ‘find your happily ever after’ Exhibition (where the films are shown) Low-budget, independent movies frequently have an exclusive, semi-exclusive or limited release in cinemas. These films will be shown on a handful of screens in the first week of release before, hopefully, gradually building towards a wider release thanks to positive word of mouth and positive reviews. Low-budget movies made by film companies that are not part of a multimedia conglomerate frequently struggle at the box-office. Quite aside from having a limited marketing budget, these films often perform poorly because cinema chains are reluctant to show them because the may not belong to recognisable or popular genres, they may deal with serious or unsettling subject matter and there may be an absence of globally recognisable A-list stars. The British film Dead Man’s Shoes, made by acclaimed director Shane Meadows, was released on only two screens in the USA and had a very limited release in the UK, despite being a British film. The film failed to make a profit at the box-office despite only having a budget of approximately £750,000. Because the film was made by Warp Films (a British production company) that is not part of a multimedia conglomerate, there is little or no opportunity for the film to generate revenue through synergy (no merchandise or video games). These lower-budget films rarely get shown in multiplexes (purpose built, multi-screen cinemas, such as Vue and Cineworld, that tend to show Hollywood-produced films) and instead they will be released in arthouse and independent cinemas that tend to show films made outside of Hollywood (such as British movies, foreign language films and American independent films). Perhaps the most natural home for these low-budget, dialogue driven films is TV or streaming services (because these films tend not to contain special effects or vast amounts of action there is no necessity to watch them at the cinema). Release patterns for Disney movies are the polar opposite. Disney aims for a super-wide or saturation release for their films, releasing them on upwards of 4000 screens in the US and over 500 screens in the UK. For movies like those made by Disney, the opening weekend at the cinema is crucial to the success of the film. The majority of the marketing for these kinds of films would have been concentrated to the fortnight before the film’s release, to drive audiences to the cinema in the opening weekend. In the build up to the release of Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi (2017) over ten different TV spots were released in the fortnight before the film appeared in the cinema. Each of these TV spots had one or two new shots of characters or action, previously unseen in other trailers. The inclusion of these new shots created a huge buzz amongst fans, which spread across social media and almost guaranteed a successful opening weekend (the film took $220 million in the USA in its opening weekend and nearly $500million worldwide in the opening weekend). There are many reasons for companies like Disney desiring a super-wide release. Firstly, the company hope to claw back as much of the production budget as quickly as possible. Secondly, they hope to achieve the status of the ‘number one film’ at the box-office as this has huge benefits when negotiating deals for merchandising and selling the film to TV companies further down the line (or encouraging consumers to subscribe to their streaming services). Thirdly, companies like Disney take a larger % of box-office revenue in the opening week of a film’s release and these companies are wary of ticket sales dropping in forthcoming weeks as other big-budget films made by rival production companies (targeting a similar demographic) are released. These films are often released at the IMAX (with higher ticket prices) and are frequently shown in 3D (also with higher ticket prices) and dominate the multiplexes, often playing on more than one screen at the same cinema. Even though DVD and Blu-ray are becoming less popular, the types of films Disney make still have a life in this format. Global TV networks, satellite and cable services (such as Sky and Virgin) and streaming services (such as Netflix and Amazon Prime) are keen to purchase the rights to show these films as they know they will be popular with audiences. Audiences frequently pay for the kinds of films Disney make multiple times (Cinema, DVD/Blu-ray, renting through satellite broadcasters and through their subscription to streaming services). Disney’s launch of their own subscription streaming service, Disney+, is designed to take advantage of the audience’s desire to re-watch these movies and the company clearly believe that showing Disney content exclusively on this platform will be very profitable (believing also that this type of platform is the future for audience consumption). How we watch - Technological Convergence and Home Cinema Developments in technology, particularly the introduction of the Internet and the production of technologically converged devices (media hubs) such as laptops, tablets, games consoles and smartphones, have changed not only the way films are consumed by audiences but also how they are marketed. This has, arguably, had a negative impact on cinema admissions. These types of devices have given audiences much more freedom to choose what they want to watch, when they want to watch it (on-demand access) and where they want to watch it (on-the-move/portability and global village). Whilst watching movies on a smartphone may not be the most immersive experience for audiences it does mean they can watch films on-demand, wherever they are. Whilst most of the multimedia conglomerates do not make devices such as smartphones and games consoles (apart from Sony), conglomerates like Disney benefit from consumers owning these devices and watching films they have produced on them. These devices enable access to every type of media and conglomerates like Disney, whose business model has been developed to take advantage of synergy, benefit hugely as audiences are able to access all the types of media they produce from one device. Tablets (such as Apple’s iPad), with bigger screens, enhance the consumer’s viewing experience and developments related to home cinema, such as bigger flat screen HD/4K/8K TVs with surround sound, mean that films like those produced by Disney have a life outside the cinema (big-budget, effects-driven movies are exactly the types of films audiences wish to watch on this equipment). Technological convergence and smartphones (because of Internet access and because it is from this device that consumers most frequently access social media), in particular, have led to huge conglomerates like Disney increasingly focusing on viral marketing and using social media platforms to promote their films. These developments in technology are almost entirely positive for consumers – the visual qualities of the films that they are watching have improved, they have more freedom about how, where and when they watch and watching films has become cheaper for them in many respects (illegal downloading or streaming, paying a monthly fee for a subscription service that allows unlimited access to many films). There are many benefits also for institutions such as Disney (multiple platforms upon which audiences can watch their films, direct and inexpensive marketing, better opportunity to generate revenue through synergy). There is one major pitfall for institutions however – developments in technology have led to a rise in piracy (illegal access to films) with companies like Disney potentially losing hundreds of millions of dollars of revenue every year. CASE STUDY – Mulan (2020) Produced by Walt Disney Pictures, Mulan is a good example of the company’s policy of re- booting their existing content for a new audience (the original animated version of Mulan was released in 1998). There are a number of benefits to this, for both institutions and audiences; from the company’s point of view there is familiarity and an existing audience, they already own the rights to the story and there will be opportunity to generate interest and further revenue from the first film (through DVD/Blu-ray sales, for example), whilst audiences will be attracted to the new film as a result of nostalgia for the original. The film held its world premiere in the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood on March 9th 2020 and was originally scheduled for a wide theatrical release in cinemas later that month (a typical release pattern for these types of movies produced by large multimedia conglomerates, where the film is released on thousands of screens simultaneously), but this was delayed a number of times as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The effect of the pandemic on the film’s theatrical release highlights the importance of Disney’s move into the subscription streaming service market with Disney+, as the negative effect of being unable to release the film in cinemas was somewhat mitigated. The film was released on September 4th 2020 by Disney on their Disney+ streaming service for a premium fee, known as Premier Access, in countries where the new streaming service had already launched (before being made free to subscribers 3 months later on December 4th). Owning their own streaming service gives Disney the opportunity to distribute their content (including films such as Mulan) in a variety of ways (some of which, such as on-demand access via streaming, are likely to appeal to certain demographics who have become used to accessing content this way) and it is certainly part of the company’s strategy to distribute films and TV shows exclusively on Disney+, available only to audiences who have subscriptions. As streaming continues to become more commonplace it is increasingly likely that audiences will be given the choice regarding how they want to watch a movie (on-demand, on-the-move); a benefit for the consumer largely as a result of technological advancements. The film did, however, have a traditional theatrical release in countries where Disney+ was yet to launch and where cinemas had re-opened. Whilst the film’s box-office takings were far lower than might have been expected for similar live-action remakes of existing Disney animated films (largely as a result of the pandemic and its impact on cinemas) the $70 million taken at cinemas was outweighed by revenue generated from Disney+ Premier Access (which, unlike other premiere video-on-demand models established by other streaming platforms, allowed subscribers to retain a copy of the film for as long as they remain a Disney+ subscriber). Priced at $29.99 in the US, the film was purchased by over 9 million US Disney+ subscribers between September 4th and September 12th, generating $261 million from US markets alone (this is in addition to sales in the other twenty or so regions where the streaming service had been launched, such as the UK, Australia, Canada and other European countries, and does not include additional subscription-based revenue that might have occurred because the film was due to be released on Disney+). These figures would appear to imply that the decision to release Mulan (which had a production budget of over $200 million) on the company’s subscription streaming service was a successful one and, with 25% of US Disney+ subscribers purchasing the film, it appears that there is an appetite amongst consumers for newer, technologically advanced, forms of distribution and exhibition. During the pandemic, many of the large multimedia conglomerates adopted similar strategies when releasing films (Universal released its $100 million animated film Trolls: World Tour directly to premium video-on-demand whilst Warner Brothers premiered all of the company’s 2021 movies simultaneously in cinemas and on its subscription streaming service HBO Max). It is likely that, post-pandemic, this strategy of combining more traditional forms of distribution/exhibition with streaming will continue, so that consumers are given the option of how they wish to watch the film. Another Disney film, Black Widow (part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe), made $125 million on Disney+ Premier Access in its first month of release (alongside $367 at the worldwide box-office during the same period) which would suggest that this simultaneous release strategy (where a film is released via streaming on the same day that it is released in cinemas) is likely to become more common going forward (Disney have followed the same strategy with Raya and the Last Dragon, Cruella and Jungle Cruise). One benefit to Disney of choosing to release films in this way (exclusively on their own streaming service rather than on third-party streaming sites, such as Netflix, or in cinemas) is that they will receive 100% of the revenue generated from sales of the movie (typically this would fall to roughly 80% with release on third-party streaming platforms and possibly as low as a 50% split with exhibitors/cinemas). Analysts have suggested that the release of Mulan on Disney+ streaming service as a Premier Access title drove a 68% increase in new app downloads for the Disney+ app in just three days (between September 4th and September 6th) and that there were twice as many daily sign-ups to Disney+ in the US when Mulan was released than there had been in the previous four weekends (a similar spike, of 72%, occurred when the recording of a live performance of the musical Hamilton appeared exclusively on Disney+ in July 2020; a film which had originally been slated as a theatrical release but moved to the streaming service as a result of cinema attendance bans during the pandemic). Traditional forms of advertising, typical of the big- budget movies that Disney makes, were used in conjunction with a viral marketing campaign (many featurettes covering the film’s cultural context, casting, special effects, costume design, production design and stunts appeared on the film’s social media platforms ahead of the film’s release, as did competitions to win a ‘red carpet kit’ of goodies to be consumed and used when watching the film). A teaser poster was released almost a year before the film’s scheduled release, followed by a second poster featuring the main character in an action scene. A series of character posters were released in the weeks before the film’s scheduled release alongside a poster designed in the style of Chinese tapestry ahead of Chinese New Year; further posters, emphasising formats such as RealD 3D and IMAX, followed. Each of these posters was designed to create a buzz around the film’s originally scheduled cinematic release and appeared on Disney’s website for the film and related social media platforms (pressing the like button on the film’s official twitter feed transformed images into the animation style of the original 1998 movie), which also included further ‘interactive’ promotional materials, for example family activities such as movie-themed snack recipes and a PDF activity pack to download. Once the decision was taken to release the film on Disney+, posters specifically drawing attention to this release pattern were created, with the Disney+ logo featuring prominently. A similar pattern was seen with the release of teasers, trailers and TV spots (including a Super Bowl Big Game Spot); the latter versions of these also foregrounded the film’s exclusive release on Disney+. Online adverts featured images from the movie but also links to a Disney+ signup page, whilst similar promotions were run within Disney+ itself, encouraging subscribers to ‘unlock’ Premier Access (in much the same way that the character of Mulan was unlocking her true identity). One of the major benefits of marketing to an existing audience of over 60 million subscribers is that it is arguably easier to get an additional sale from a loyal fan base than trying to ‘recruit’ new business from a wider audience of general movie-goers. Other ways in which Mulan was promoted include marketing partnerships/promotional tie-ins with various brands; a common practice with big- budget ‘tentpole’ movies produced by the major Hollywood studios. Examples of products that had tie-ins with the film include Colourpop and The Republic of Tea, make-up and drinks brands respectively. Colourpop’s campaign with Mulan consisted of a collection of branded make-up products inspired by the film, with the packaging for the make-up featuring custom-branding that pulled design elements from the film (such as the red, gold and black colour scheme, the same font used in other marketing materials promoting the movie, and images from the film on the packaging). Available in stores and aimed primarily at the teen and ‘tween’ markets, the make-up was also heavily promoted on Colourpop’s website and via social media channels (which much more effectively target that demographic). Mulan’s promotional tie-in with the beverage company The Republic of Tea saw the release of a film-related flavour of tea (the Mulan Warrior Green Tea). The packaging again used the same font used across the film’s marketing materials and featured both the Disney logo and a large image of the character of Mulan that had featured prominently in many of the film’s posters. The film was promoted on The Republic of Tea’s website as well as on the company’s official social media channels, where customers were encouraged to enjoy a ‘tea-centred watch party’ of the film. Promotional tie-ins such as these create much greater awareness ahead of the release of the movie (both tie-ins began before the film’s scheduled release date), working to create a presence in both traditional ways (available in stores, for example) and online (promoted digitally). There are numerous examples of synergy with Mulan, where extra revenue streams have been generated through other media created by subsidiaries of The Walt Disney Company. The release of the film on DVD, Blu-ray and Ultra HD Blu-ray on November 10th 2020 clearly generated further revenue from the film itself, but the film’s soundtrack album released on Walt Disney Records, a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company, is a good example of another form of media simultaneously generating extra revenue, piggy-backing on the film and also acting as promotion for the film itself. Pop icon Christina Aguilera recorded a number of songs for the album, one of which (Loyal Brave True) was released in the week before the film’s premiere (acting as a promotional single marketing the film’s release), with the official music video featuring footage and imagery from the film and a Spanish-language video for the song premiering on YouTube’s Disney Music Vevo channel at the same time. The singer performed two medleys for ABC’s Walt Disney World’s 50th Anniversary Special (ABC is one of the TV networks owned by The Walt Disney Company) and appeared singing songs from the movie on a number of talk shows, including Jimmy Kimmel Live which airs on ABC, which further promoted the movie (the footage was then heavily promoted on the film’s social media platforms). A number of books related to Mulan were released (or re-released) in the build up to the movie’s scheduled theatrical release, as a means of generating further revenue streams but also as a further way of promoting the film. Mulan: Before the Sword (a prequel novel), Mulan (a tie-in novelisation of the film) and The Art of Mulan (a coffe-table book featuring the artwork from the original 1998 version of the film) were released (or re-released in the case of The Art of Mulan) in February 2020 by Walt Disney Publishing (one of the print publishing companies owned by the conglomerate). A range of film-related merchandise went on sale in the Disney Store (and other retail and online outlets) both before and after the film’s release. These included phone cases, bags, mugs, costumes and clothes, dolls, figurines, pin and badge sets, books, stationary, jewellery, make-up bags, lunchboxes, collectible artwork and toys. The character of Mulan appeared in the Kingdom Hearts Melody of Memory video game released in November 2020 on Nintendo Switch, Playstation 4, Xbox One and in March 2021 on Windows. The game featured songs and ‘worlds’ from multiple Disney movies and whilst Disney does not make either the devices upon which the game is played or the game itself, the company benefits hugely from revenue deals brokered with the game’s developer. Whilst no specific game has been made for Mulan, Disney has released or licensed games for other films they have produced in recent years including The Avengers franchise, Guardians of the Galaxy and the Star Wars sequels. Typical Questions Below is a list of typical questions related to this topic. My advice would be to plan these questions, working through the notes above to select the most relevant pieces of information. Make sure that you pick content that is relevant to the question – for example, using information related to marketing in a question that focuses on the ways in which films are advertised OR showing your knowledge of multimedia conglomerates and synergy in a question related to media industries. It is crucial that you use the CORRECT information to answer the question as you will not be rewarded for just writing everything you know. There is a great deal of information in these notes, with numerous case studies and multiple references to different films – it would be impossible to attempt to include all of this information in an answer (quite aside from much of the information being irrelevant to certain questions). Therefore, this careful planning will be crucial in ensuring that you use the right information to answer the questions. Discuss the impact of funding on media products? ‘Nowadays, everybody consumes media texts in the same way.’ Discuss with reference to the media area you have studied. How far has digital technology changed patterns of distribution? To what extent does audience behaviour determine changes in the media industry? To what extent has social media altered how media texts are consumed? Analyse how media institutions use different platforms to engage with their audiences. How far does digital distribution affect the consumption of media texts in the area you have studied? How important is cross-media convergence and synergy in the media area you have studied? How do media institutions target national and local audiences in the media area you have studied? Assess the importance of marketing in the media area you have studied. Evaluate the impact of media ownership on the media texts which get produced. To what extent does media ownership have an impact on the successful distribution of media products in the media area you have studied? To what extent has the Internet played a significant role in the marketing and consumption (exchange) of media products in the area you have studied? Discuss the implications of technological convergence on institutions and audiences in the media area you have studied. Analyse how media institutions are using different platforms to engage with their audiences. To what extent has social media altered how media products are consumed? ‘Although large media institutions dominate the market there are benefits that come from being smaller.’ To what extent is this true for the media area you have studied? Explain how changes in technology have affected audience behaviour in the media area you have studied.