Canadian History Lecture Notes: Indigenous Peoples, Canada

Primary sources  are evidence based.  Anything created by humans in the time you’re interested in is a primary source. documents such as letters and records  Art  Old buildings  Artifacts and objects  Literature and poems  Bones, archaeological remains. Sec...

Primary sources  are evidence based.  Anything created by humans in the time you’re interested in is a primary source. documents such as letters and records  Art  Old buildings  Artifacts and objects  Literature and poems  Bones, archaeological remains. Secondary Sources  Are opinion based  Textbooks  Magazines  Websites  Teachers  Tv shows  Peer reviewed articles Historiography  History of historical research on a subject  History changes as we learn more about the past  Old ideas can be replaced with new ones  Not about history – about the history of historical understanding. How does Geography affect history?  Geography doesn’t determine human destiny, but it poses limits on humans.  Determines population size as well as economy and mobility  Inspires political systems and spiritual beliefs  Geography changes over time. Canadian Geography made up of 6 physiographic regions Physiographic regions are regions of climatic and geographic similarity  Atlantic and Gulf region  Great Lakes & St Lawrence Lowlands  Canadian Shield  Interior plains  Western cordillera  North Canadian Shield  Makes up 40% of the land area of Canada  Made of ancient rock from when the earth formed  Heavily forested  Rough terrain  Cold climate  Unable to support large populations of people Atlantic & Gulf regions  Rounded hills and plateaus  Remnants of ancient mountains which were at one point as high as the alps known as the Appalachian Mountains  Few large fertile areas  The climate can vary  Survival was mostly reliant on fishing and game  Most people settled close to ocean and rivers. Great Lakes – St Lawrence Lowlands  Formed by retreating ice sheets after last ice age  Very gentle rolling hills  Very fertile soil conducive to agriculture  Moderate climate very warm in summer not too cold in winter  Largest most complex societies lived in this area Interior Plains  Flattest part of Canada  Was a inland sea millions of years ago, rocky layers in soil from deposits from bottom of ancient sea  Very cold not a lot of trees  Good soil for farming using modern techniques. Not always so   Abundant game supported indigenous societies (bison)  Societies were mobile following bison Western Cordillera  Rocky Mountains – Young Mountain range very tall  Mountains interrupt weather.  On side close to Pacific Ocean, it is very warm with an abundance of food, and large populations of people  On side close to plains the area is very cold with the warm pacific weather being blocked by mountains  Mountains were a barrier for contact, so societies did not have much contact with those on opposing sides of the Rockies. North  Very cold  Few trees or useable soil  Permafrost  Small populations of people living in small groups survived through fish and game  Not suitable for agriculture  Very rugged environment Primary sources for pre-contact society  Archaeology  Artifacts  Architecture  Art  Writing  Oral History  European History Genetic Research  All Indigenous peoples in the Americas share a common ancestry in Asia. Americas before Europeans: Millenia of change  Origins: Migration from Asia  Arrival: More than 13,000 years ago  Population: At least 50 million by 1500 Human History:  All Humans originate from Africa  Inbreeding was not uncommon with neanderthals  Humans left Africa 90,000 years ago and quickly spread across the globe with exception on the Americas  During last ice age Beringia connected Alaska and Siberia allowing for migrations to the Americas Clovis First Theory:  Named from a discovery of early humans at Clovis, New Mexico  Spearpoints  Prehistoric culture spread through much of the Americas  Big Game Hunters – Mammoth and other ice age animals  Sites date 11,500-11,000 years ago  Arrived via Beringia and a ice free corridor  Ice sheets blocked the way until 13,000 years ago. Coastal Route Theory:  Evidence in Monte Verde, Chile of human occupation from 14,500 years ago.  Humans found a way around ice sheets  Humans travelled in boats along the coast into South America bypassing the ice sheets on land.  Fishing and hunting along the way The Americas were likely settled in waves of different migrations The Spread of Agriculture around the world  Humans began breeding and growing plants with good nutritional value.  Prior to this human were nomadic following herds of animals  Agriculture spread through old world   Americas cut off from old world, developed agriculture later  Agriculture developed independently in the Americas, were not shown from any other cultures. Domesticated plants in Americas native to the Americas  Corn (most important)  Peppers  Tomatoes  Cacao  Potatoes Native Tribes at First Contact  Many tribes and languages (language groups)  At least 50 distinct Indigenous cultures  12 different language groups  Extensive networks of trade and cultural exchange  Indigenous societies varied greatly but had some similarities  Changed over time with the environment  Most population in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and southern British Columbia due to more temperate climate. Culture and Society General Characteristics:  Spiritual beliefs of central importance i.e.. Vision quests and dreams  Respect for spirits of animals and plants  Warfare common between groups  Gender roles more relaxed – relatively egalitarian  Matriarchal vs patriarchal? Atlantic and Gulf Region  Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, Beothuk, and Innu  Diverse resource base  Different strategies for each season  Spring: Fish camps near bays and river mouths  Summer: Hunt marine animals  Autumn: Migratory bird hunt, eel fishery  Winter: Hunt moose, caribou, bear Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands   Haudenosaunee, Wendat, Seneca, Onondaga, Mohawk  Grew 3 sisters – Corn Beans and Squash  Very Agricultural  50,000 Iroquoians in Canada by 1500  Lived in palisaded villages of 3—50 longhouses.  Clan matrons chose chiefs  Organized into confederacies ( Haudenosaunee, Wabanaki) Canadian Shield - Interior Plains  Cree, Ojibwa, Algonkian, Sioux, Blackfoot, Dene  Hunter gatherers – abundant game (buffalo)  Gender equality – little rank distinction  Small bands with large seasonal gatherings Pacific coast/ Western Cordillera  Haida, Tinjit, Songish, Comox  Chiefdoms with rigid social hierarchies and hereditary leadership  Very different from rest of Canada due to mountains limiting contact  Plants, plentiful stocks of fish (salmon and halibut) and shellfish made up the diet  At least 25% of pre-contact population were slaves gained during wartime.  High pre-contact populations The North  Paleo Eskimo culture similar from Siberia to Greenland around 2500 BCE  Inuit (Thule culture) groups moved into Canada around 1000CE and displaced earlier natives (Dorset culture)  Hunter gatherers reliant on marine animals and fish  No agriculture due to permafrost  Nomadic peoples  Waves of settlement The Columbian Exchange The Exchange of biological and cultural elements between the old and new world.  Introduction of non-native plants and animals from around the world  Exchange of:  Crops  Fruits and vegetables  Domestic animals  Slaves  Diseases  Grains Age of Exploration 1450’s-1700’s  Europeans had limited knowledge of the world  1492 Christopher Columbus discovers America and from this time contact is constant between Europe and the Americas.  Columbus was hired by Spain to find a new route to India and China  Columbus never landed on mainland Americas. Landed in Caribbean thinking it was India hence the misnomer “Indians” Pre-Columbus Contact  Hints in literature and legends of contact having taken place but no definitive proof.  St. Brendan – and Irish Monk said he and a group of Monks travelled across the ocean and found very cold lands  Portuguese fishermen reportedly found lands with great fishing grounds and a abundance of fish but kept it to themselves First certain contact was the Vikings  986-1100 Norse (Vikings) explore Greenland, Iceland and “Vinland” which was likely Newfoundland (L’anse aux Meadows)  After a very cold winter and much conflict with aboriginals the Vikings abandoned Vinland. Why did Exploration happen?  At the end of the Middle Ages changes are happening throughout Europe  Shipping technology advances with the compass and astrolabe, as well as advances in cartography which made sailing long distances much easier  Caravel and fully rigged ships are developed Changes in Europe leading to age of exploration Changes begin in 1400’s   Increase of trade and capitalism  All countries in Europe in direct competition with one another economically and militarily  Increased power of kings (absolutism)  Protestant reformation (1517 onwards) splitting Christianity into different versions increased rivalries Fall of Constantinople in 1453  Very important city in Europe conquered by ottoman empire  Was a gateway city from the east to the west  Was main trade route between Europe and Asia  Shut off all trade between Europe and India and China  Europeans begin looking for a new route to asia Spain  First to land in mainland Americas  Landed in Mesoamerica – Aztec Empire  Found a lot of Gold and Silver Hernan Cortez  Conquered Aztec empire with 200n soldiers  Diseases helped conquer the Aztec and making allies with the maya who had been conquered by the Aztec recently. New Spain  Sucked the area dry of gold and silver resources which were sent back to Spain  Made Spain most powerful country in Europe  Once resources dried up in Mesoamerica they moved to south America and did the same thing with the Inca Empire Early explorations England, France and the Netherlands  England, France, and the Netherlands quickly race to catch up to Spain  John Cabot discovered Newfoundland in 1497 for the English resulting in early fur trading activities and the north Atlantic fisheries. France in the Americas Jacques Cartier   Sent by king of France in 1534 to explore the “northern lands”  Hoped to find spices and a route to Asia  Made 3 voyages in 1534, 1535-1536 and 1541 to 1543  Sailed up St. Lawrence rover to Stadacona and Hochelaga, modern day Quebec City and Montreal  Region became known as “Canada” from “Kanata” (village) In Iroquois  Found furs and Iron pyrite (fool’s gold)  Kidnapped several natives on each voyage and brough back to France  Failed in attempt to settle colonies – most settlers died of scurvy Fish, Furs and Early colonies  Immense fisheries the first early form of exploitation of North America  Fishermen would trade goods for furs  European iron products reached far inland  Demand for beaver felted hats in Europe grew  By 1600’s most countries in Europe trying to set up colonies in new world. Resumption of French colonization in early 1600’s  Establishment of Acadia: Port Royal in 1605  Cooperation of Mi’kmaq was a key advantage Samuel de Champlain 1574-1635  Founded Quebec City and Montreal in same places Jacques Cartier found indigenous villages (now abandoned)  Interacted with Wendat peoples and helped them in war against Haudenosaunee to gain a alliance with the Wendat  Unintentionally made the French enemies of the Haudenosaunee Netherland in the Americas  1609 commissioned Henry Hudson to tr to find Northwest Passage to India  Discovered Hudson’s Bay and the Hudson River (Future New York City)  1625 Dutch founded “New Amsterdam” renamed New York after seized by Britain in 1665 England in the Americas  England establishes colonies along eastern coast by 1609 known as new England  Several attempts to establish settlements in newfoundland between 1610 and 1630 but most ended in failure. Early New France – 1600’s 2 colonies  Acadia – Nova Scotia  Canada – Along St. Lawrence After the protestant reformation beginning in 1517 whole countries develop religious identities England – Protestant France – Catholic Large divisions between catholic and protestant countries leading to much competition. Comparing New France and New England New England  Large and growing population  Well-developed settlements, towns  Hostile relations with indigenous peoples as English push rather into indigenous territory  Whole families settled in New England due to religious tolerance offered in the colonies. Whole families settling allowed the population to self-replicate very quickly. New France  Small mostly male populations  Rural and undeveloped  Focused on fisheries and fur trade  Good relations with Indigenous peoples New France Missionaries   By 1625 several religious orders including the Jesuits are operating in New France.  Increased tensions between natives and Europeans  Some indigenous did convert for either spiritual or economic reasons  Challenged gender relations between men and women  Created tensions within native populations between converts and non- converts. The Wendat – Haudenosaunee Wars  Series of wars fought during mid 1600’s  By 1630 disease and social division had weakened the Wendat.  By 1649 the Haudenosaunee had defeated the Wendat leading to the destruction of Huronia. New France Late 1600’s to early 1700’s  Small population size  Conflict with Haudenosaunee  Focused mainly on economic resources (furs and fish) and religious conversions of the indigenous. This approach was not conducive to growing population. The Turning point  In 1664 King Louis XIV takes direct control of the colonies  Louis XIV was a “absolute monarch”  Absolutism means all power was embodied in the king  The king is anointed by God  Louis XIV was very ambitious  Royal Government formed in New France in 1663  Louis XIV sends military regiments to New France for the first time forcing the Haudenosaunee to back down for the next 20 years. Problem:  Population in New England was much larger than that of New France. The success of New France would depend on increasing the population to contend with English colonies. Solving population growth  Women essential for the colony’s stability and growth   Impossible for women in France to get married without a dowry. Poor women or orphaned women could not wed. Condemned to a life of servitude.  Louis XIV provided dowries to poor women who would relocate to the colonies. Called them filles du roi (daughters of the king) Population grew rapidly  By 1700 the population was 15,000  By 1759 the population was 70,000 Acadia and Canada 1600’s Acadia  Small population  Difficult to establish royal rule  Close negotiations with indigenous peoples (mainly Mi’kmaq) Canada  Population expanding from the filles du roi  Traditional European social hierarchy  Importance of church in society New France Society  Society is largely rural  Few cities and towns Seigneurialism Medieval landholding system used in France and Canada  Nobles (seigneurs) own land, provide a church and a mill.  Land rented out to peasants (habitants)  Habitants clear and work the land. The land was still heavily forested. Labour was intensive before land could even be ready to be farmed New France Economy Mercantilism   Government controlled the economy.  Not allowed to do business with other colonies or countries  Colony was a market for French goods and a provider of raw materials  Designed as economic competition Expansion of New France - 1700’s New France expands geographically to become larger than new England. Coureurs de bois  Unofficial independent traders in the pays d’ en huat (great lakes region)  Travelled further into the wilderness to find furs and cut out indigenous middlemen  Many tribes doing business with the French were not finding the furs themselves. After overhunting their regions, they would trade with other tribes deeper into the wilderness resulting in much higher prices.  Coureurs de bois lowered prices by cutting out middlemen.  Expanded French territory significantly  French fur trading posts build further into the wilderness by coureurs de bois.  Love hate relationship with the crown. France liked the expanding of French influence in the Americas but since coureurs de bois were independent from the crown they were not able to be controlled  Coureurs de bois traded alcohol to indigenous peoples for furs which resulted in social disruption with indigenous peoples.  Louisiana and Ohio regions claimed for the French by southern exploration.  New Orleans founded 1718. By the 1700’s countries began seeing their countries less as sources of revenue and more as strategic outposts. War of the League of Augsburg (nine years war) 1688-1697  European war between protestant nations and catholic France   Nervous about Louis XIV and the power he held  1st European war with battles fought in North America Spring 1690 failed English attempt to take Quebec.  English surrounded the city and sent a message to general Frontenac.  Frontenac responded “I have no reply to make to your general other than from the mouth of my cannons and muskets”  England failed in attempt Treaty of Montreal 1701 Also known as the great peace of 1701  France was allies with the Wendat  Enemies of Haudenosaunee  Once Wendat was defeated the French dealt with continuous raids from the Haudenosaunee  Once Louis XIV sent military aid to the colonies the conflict died down.  In 1701 a peace treaty between new France and 40 first nations groups was drawn up and signed by over 1300 representatives.  Ended nearly a century of warfare. War of Spanish succession (Queen Anne’s war) 1701-1713  King of spain dies with no heir  Louis XIV wanted his grandson to ascend the Spanish throne  European powers already nervous about louis xiv did not want his grandson on the throne of superpower spain  War was fought for 12 years in Europe and north America Treaty of Utrecht 1713 ended war  Grandson had to relinquish right to ascend French throne  Some French Areas were to be ceded to the British in exchange for Louis XIV grandson taking Spanish throne  France kept: Canada, Ile Royale, Ile St. Jean (PEI)  France lost: Acadia, newfoundland, and the Hudson’s Bay region. Inter-war years 1713-1744   Acadia renamed nova scotia  People of Acadia now under British rule  Acadians are suspected of not being loyal to the British.  Acadians wanted to remain neutral in future conflicts between Britain and France.  Were called the neutral French War of Austrian Succession (King George’s war) 1744-1748  Austrian King died without a male heir.  Had a daughter Marie Theresa  Fought over whether a woman could ascend the throne  France and Prussia said NO  England and others said YES  Battles fought everywhere from India to North America – Global conflict  Britain and France at war again  Tested Acadian Neutrality.  British captured Louisbourg  French attacked British troops in Grand Pre, Nova Scotia – Massacre of Grand Pre – 1747  Some French troops were Acadians  Changed British attitude on Acadians  Louisbourg had to be given back to the French. Expulsion of the Acadians 1755  Acadians forced to leave nova scotia  Could go to other British colonies or French colonies  To ensure they did not return the English burned their homes and farms.  Some went to Canada  Many went to Louisiana “Cajuns” The Seven Years War (French Indian war)  Final north American conflict between England and France.  Only one which began in North America  War began when a British unit led by 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a small French force at the battle of Jumonville Glen on May 28, 1754  British forces took Louisbourg again which left the French vulnerable once British had access to St. Lawrence River. Siege of Quebec – Summer 1759  British forces surround city  40,000 cannonballs blasted into the city  Quebec surrounded by tall cliffs  Much damage done to Quebec  By end of summer things were looking bad for the French Battle of the plains of Abraham September 1759  British troops scale cliffs surrounding Quebec and assemble on the plains of Abraham  French could have chosen to stay in city and wait for reinforcements  English leader Wolfe placed himself in a precarious military position. If Montcalm decided to stay in the city reinforcements could have surrounded Wolfe. Wolfe gambles on Montcalm riding out to meet them.  French lead by Montcalm leave safety of the city to meet the English on the plains of Abraham.  Entire battle lasts 15 minutes. Both Montcalm and wolfe die on battlefield.  After the battle French abandon Quebec to the English.  1300 casualties. British Conquest  French surrender 1760  Treaty of paris 1763 dictates that France cedes all North American Territories except two small islands off the coast of newfoundland  Spain gets Louisiana, the rest go to the English.  France has no interest in regaining Quebec. Royal Proclamation of 1763 Immediate consequences:  Indian Territory identified  Forbade encroachment on native lands  The crown exclusively can deal with natives. The thirteen colonies were eager to push west, and the British crown did not want that   Canada’s size was decreased, and the area was renamed “Quebec”  Natives found themselves very isolated Transfer of power was traumatic for the Indigenous Peoples  End of tributes, gift giving, playing different sides  British enforced strict controls over native populations on the frontier and took over many old French trading posts Impact on the conquest of Quebec  Catholics excluded from roles in government  For the first decade the British tried to assimilate the French to English culture and failed to do so.  Growing unrest in the 13 colonies  Merchants were in bad shape under British rule. Mercantile system had them doing business entirely with France but now under English rule they had nobody to partner with… English already had their own sources of trade within the mercantile system  Quebec act of 1774 brought a new strategy. For dealing with French subjects Quebec Act 1774  Designed to ensure loyalty of French canadiens.  Seigneurial system recognized  Traditional French language and culture recognized.  Allowed to use French civil law but had to use British criminal law.  Enlarged province to include Indian territory to the south (Ohio valley)  Lifted restrictions on Catholics. Growing Unrest in the 13 colonies  Fought with Britain in seven years’ war  Relations began to deteriorate after the war  Britain made new laws to tax the colonies to pay off war time debts.  Taxation without representation  New tax on tea – as a protest the Boston tea party of 1773 protesters threw entire cargo of tea into the sea.  Britain made Massachusetts pay for the entire cargo of tea   More laws passed in 1774 became known as “Intolerable Acts” which pushed more rebellion  The Quebec act was a huge source of strife.  The 13 colonies felt it unfair that people of Quebec who were the enemy not long ago were getting cessations and the people who fought for Britain were getting unfair treatment.  The 13 colonies were angry that the Ohio valley which was sought after for the colonies and subsequently given to the natives was given to the French speaking colony. The American Revolution – 1776  13 colonies rebel against mother country  Challenged British authority  Issues included representation in government, taxes and expansion.  Americans invade Quebec thinking the French would be eager to join them  Quebec was not interested in joining them… Quebec act made them happier under British rule. Quebec and natives  Little canadien support for Americans.  French and natives chose British side. English Atlantic region  Few people sided with Americans  Newfoundland’s trade was dominated by Britain wanted status quo to remain.  Strong British military presence in nova scotia and many British loyalists since expulsion of Acadians. The British lose and the United States of America is born. 1783 Treaty of Paris  Britain recognized US independence  Cessation of all lands south of the great lakes  First nations not consulted  Natives in US territory left in a desperate position. What happened after the American Revolution?  British North America reduced to just northern colonies (Canada)   Influx of loyalist settlers who refuse to become americans  Britain encouraged loyalist subjects offering free land ton settle… eanted to offset the french speaking population  Constitutional Act of 1791 seperated Canada into 2 provinces.  Upper Canada is mainly English speaking  Lower Canada is mainly french speaking  Land in upper Canada given to loyalists.  Lingering resentment remains between Britain and the USA The Loyalist Influx  Soldiers, refugees, opportunists  Many loyalists moved with families… over 50% were women and children  Many free black loyalists moved to Canada  Many people were ill-prepared for life on frontier (were urban dwellers)  New town were founded such as York (Toronto)  Towns were placed in strategic locations along border of USA to protect against possibility of future conflict  Natives were forced off their land. Upper Canada 1791-1812  Rapid population increases  English institutions and culture dominated  The elite class was concentrated in York and functioned as an Oligarchy  Elite class called “family compact” they were a small group of conservative families who dominated business and government  Opposition to the elite appeared very soon Lower Canada 1791-1812  English elite regained power (another oligarchy)  Chateau Clique: the small upper class, mostly English group that controlled the government of lower Canada.  French culture remained  French speaking professional class grew  Nationalist “parti-canadien developed – seperatists. Britain wanted to boost upper Canada in fear of another war with the USA. They encouraged more people to settle there and increased military presence while building fortifications along Lake Ontario and lake eerie in preparation. The War of 1812  Brought about by lingering tensions and resentment between the British and the americans.  2.5 year long conflict  Several battles fought in Canada including in Niagara Falls and York. Several causes of the war 1. Rivalry at sea and trade restrictions due to the Napoleonic wars. The USA remained neutral in Napoleonic wars and continued to do trade with france. Britain started to intercept American trade ships and force the sailors to join the british navy. 2. Britain supported Native tribes resisting American expansion by giving weapons etc. 3. Goal of many to annex Canada - Manifest destiny Tecumseh: resisted American expansion into native territories - wanted a return to the “old ways” before Europeans. Fought alongside the English in the war of 1812 The Battle of York 1813  Americans invade York  British end up fleeing  Americans burn York  British vowed revenge on the Americans 1 year after the battle of York in 1814 the British set fire to the white house. Legacy of the war of 1812  After 2.5 years of fighting, it ends in a stalemate  Last official war between the USA and Britain  Recognizes boundaries between USA and Canada.  Britain increases fortification on the border  British become worried that American ideas will come north Natives, the fur trade and westward expansion  Drive west was driven by the economic demands of the fur trade  As fur bearing animals were overhunted Europeans needed to push further west in search of new tribes to trade with. Fur trade initially beneficial to native peoples but:   Europeans brought terrible diseases such as smallpox  Gradual cultural division and erosion of culture.  As resources depleted bargaining ability is reduced and independence from Europeans eroded.  As traders pushed west the introduction of horses transformed native culture  Tribes such as the Sioux and the Blackfoot maintained independence with horses and guns. Hudson’s Bay Company VS North West Company British traders  HBC- Formed in 1670  Controlled Rupert’s Land and by 1800’s began pushing westward French Traders  Coureurs de bois  Formed North West Company in 1770  Maintained close relations with indigenous trading partners  Birth of Metis nation Competition sometimes violent between HBC and NWC with fighting and trading posts being burned down. Birth of the Metis Nation  Mixed blood peoples  Key in fur trade with French (exclusively traded with NWC)  Unique culture which mixed European and native elements  Usually catholic  Spoke French  Survived by buffalo hunt  Lived a more indigenous lifestyle Founding of Red River settlement  1812 red river settlement founded in modern day Winnipeg by the HBC  HBC developed the settlement deep in Metis territory without consent of the Metis people  Settlement was for white people only  Metis survived through trade alliance with NWC The Merger of the HBC and NWC  Competition was proving ruinous to the two companies, so they decided to merge  Merged in 1821  Merger was disastrous for the Metis people who lost their protector in trade. Birth of British Columbia and the Pacific west  One of the last regions to be exploited by Europeans.  Spanish, English, Russians, and Americans all competing for the territory  1846 the Oregon Treaty divided the territory along the 49 th parallel  Vancouver Island was settled by HBC in 1849 – very small settlement  1858 – Fraser canyon gold rush caused a massive population boom  British Columbia became a official crown colony merged with Vancouver island in 1866. The quest for responsible government in upper and lower Canada Goal: Responsible Government – A government which would be accountable to the people. People wanted:  To be self-governing  Parliamentary accountability  To remain within the British empire The Reality was:  People would be ruled by an appointed council  In upper Canada the family compact would be in control  In lower Canada the clique de chateau would be in control  Oligarchy was formed  The elected assembly held no real power Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada 1837-1838  2 uprisings that took place In upper and lower Canada in 1837 and 1838   Independent movements which were not directly connected  Similar causes – although some differences  Shared goal of responsible government  Lower Canada rebellion led by Louis-Joseph Papineau  Upper Canada rebellion led by William Lyon Mackenzie Lower Canada Rebellion  Louis-Joseph Papineau and the “parti-patriotes”  Quest was for responsible government and French representation  Economic crisis of 1830’s  Increasing anglophone population and cholera epidemic.  Ninety-two resolutions in 1834 given to British government. - denied  Two major uprisings – both failures  November 1837 – Battle of Saint Eustache  1838 – smaller uprising  Louis-Joseph Papineau fled to the United States  Many rebels imprisoned, hung, exiled to Australia. Upper Canada Rebellion  Less violent and more limited than the uprisings earlier that year in lower Canada  William Lyon Mackenzie – Scottish born politician and newspaper publisher. First mayor of Toronto  Seeking democratic reform and an end to the rule of the privileged oligarchy Montgomery’s tavern 1837  500-700 rebels bearing only hunting rifles and pitchforks marched south on Yonge Street. Failed uprising  Defeated the next day by loyalist troops  Mackenzie flees to United states.  Handful of smaller raids over the next year from the USA. Aftermath of the rebellions  Rebels put on trial – man executed  Durham report - Lord Durham sent by Britain to find out what went wrong. Durham gave recommendations 1. Give the colonies responsible government - Britain said no  2. Stop French nationalism by joining the colonies – Britain agreed Act of union 1840  No more upper and lower Canada.  Canada east and Canada west  French population lost a lot of representation Province of Canada after the rebellions  No responsible government initially  Union was almost universally unpopular  Moderate reformers forced to work together o Robert Baldwin o Louis Hippolyte-LaFontaine Created unstoppable movement towards responsible government Responsible Government – Finally!  1st British colony to achieve responsible government was nova scotia in 1848 followed later that year by Canada, PEI in 1851, New Brunswick in 1854 and Newfoundland in 1855. Why?  Colonies becoming an economic burden  End of mercantile system  Influence of moderate reformers Responsible Government in action Reform governments  Attacked entrenched privilege such as the family compact and chateau de clique  Conservatives resented their loss of power  1849 rebellion losses bill passes granting financial compensation for losses acquired during the rebellions of 1837-1838.  Conservatives angry over rebellion loses bill and riot in Montreal, burning down parliament building. Canadian Confederation Dream of a united country Why?  19th century nationalist movements (nationalism) influenced British North American colonists.  Union may increase economic growth  External pressures from USA and Britain External Pressures for confederation  British colonial office o Saw colonies as an unnecessary burden both economically and from a military standpoint  USA o Manifest Destiny – wanted annexation o US Civil war 1861-1865 o Lincoln drew up plans to invade Canada. The Great Coalition  John A Macdonald – Conservative  George Brown – Reformer  George Etienne Cartier – French conservative o All 3 hated each other  George Brown overheard talk in London about the burden of Canada  Went to Macdonald and pitched the idea of working together to form a new country  Macdonald recognized that to work it would have to include someone who could represent the French population – George Etienne Cartier  Maritimes were also considering independence with a conference planned in Charlottetown  Coalition went to Charlottetown conference in 1864 where they found support  Agreed to meet again in Quebec later to hash out the details Quebec City conference 1864  Concept of Ontario and Quebec created  Basis of union agreed upon British North America Act 1867 Dominion of Canada formed July 1, 1867  o Ontario – capital of Ottawa as it straddled the English and French regions o Quebec o New Brunswick o Nova Scotia  PEI and newfoundland initially were not interested in union  Indigenous peoples not consulted  New country now formed under John A Macdonald