Introduction to Cognitive Science Learning Unit 1 PDF

KMF 1014 INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE SCIENCE 1 ABOUT THE COURSE ⦁ This course introduces concepts and ideas in the various disciplines that contribute to the field of Cognitive Science. Topics include: ⦁ Cognitive Psychology, ⦁ Neuroscience...

KMF 1014 INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE SCIENCE 1 ABOUT THE COURSE ⦁ This course introduces concepts and ideas in the various disciplines that contribute to the field of Cognitive Science. Topics include: ⦁ Cognitive Psychology, ⦁ Neuroscience, ⦁ Linguistics, ⦁ Artificial Intelligence, ⦁ Philosophy of the Mind. ⦁ Lecture-based teaching, small-group assignment/lab report and group project are methods used to achieve the learning and teaching objectives of this course. 2 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES ⦁ By the end of this course, students will be able to ⦁ Describe basic concepts and ideas in the various disciplines that contribute to the field of Cognitive Science ⦁ Discuss relevant applications of Cognitive Science concepts and ideas in students' own area of specialization ⦁ Infer some human cognition and machine intelligence concepts through participation in experiments on areas relevant to the field of Cognitive Science ⦁ Describe current developments in the field of Cognitive Science 3 INSTRUCTIONAL MATTERS & LEARNING SPACE ⦁ Online learning ⦁ Visit eLeap (Notes, Learning Materials, Activities) ⦁ Course instructors for: ⦁ Group 1 : En Mohd Hafizan ⦁ Group 2 & 3: Dr Nurul Hanim Nasaruddin ⦁ Group 4 & 5: Dr Siti Atiyah Ali 4 INSTRUCTIONAL MATTERS & LEARNING SPACE ⦁ Course Text ⦁ Sobel, C. P., & Li, P. (2013).The Cognitive Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company. ⦁ https://www.amazon.com/Cogn itive-Sciences-Interdisciplinary- Approach-ebook-dp- B00D3NEJNU/dp/B00D3NEJNU /ref=mt_other?_encoding=UTF8 &me=&qid= 5 ISSUES (IN THE PAST) ⦁ Attend lecture but did not register for the course ⦁ Register but did not attend the class. ⦁ Plagiarism. ⦁ Copy and paste without rewording or proper citation. 6  Learning Unit 1 Understanding the Science of Cognition 7  CLASS ACTIVITY 1 ⦁ What’s in a Human Mind? ⦁ Draw YOUR impression of the Human Mind ⦁ Explain your drawing to the class 8 HUMAN MIND: YOUR IMPRESSIONS 9 HUMAN MIND: YOUR IMPRESSIONS 10 HUMAN MIND: YOUR IMPRESSIONS 11 HUMAN MIND: YOUR IMPRESSIONS 12 SCIENCE? ⦁ Scientia (Latin) – knowledge ⦁ A system of acquiring knowledge ⦁ How? = using observation and experimentation ⦁ Why? = to describe and explain natural phenomena. ⦁ Purpose – produce useful models of reality ⦁ The organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. 13 COGNITION? ⦁ Cognitio (Latin) – to acquire knowledge through the exercise of mental powers (i.e. the mental process of knowing) ⦁ “the understanding, acquisition, and processing of knowledge, or, more loosely, thought processes” (Stuart-Hamilton, 1995) ⦁ All processes by which sensory input is: ⦁ Transformed ⦁ Reduced how we receive ⦁ Elaborated information from the ⦁ Stored outside world through our ⦁ Recovered senses, how we organize ⦁ Used it and use it.) The process of acquiring, processing, and applying knowledge 14 COGNITIVE PROCESSES? Reasoning Language Perception Learning Imagery Problem Solving Mind Memory The process of acquiring, processing, and applying knowledge 15 COGNITIVE CAPABILITIES Sensation Visual Auditory Obtain Perception Perceptual Illusions Attention Information Memory Processing Store Representations Statement about the world Concept Proposition Single entity or group of entities Rules Analogy Utilize Day-to-day Comparison Specify relationships between similar between proposition 16 situations COGNITIVE SCIENCE? ⦁ Scientific interdisciplinary study of the mind (cognitive phenomena) ⦁ The quest to understand intelligence. ⦁ Each discipline contributes its own data, scientific methods, and perspective. ⦁ No single perspective is adequate when studying something as complex as the mind. 17 ANALOGY: THE BLIND MEN & THE ELEPHANT 18 19 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH (COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY) ⦁ Emphasis on the study of internal mental operations ⦁ Computer as a metaphor for MIND ⦁ Mental functioning = representation & computation ⦁ Cognitive Psychologist ⦁ Concerned with questions about: ⦁ intelligence, ⦁ learning, ⦁ attention, ⦁ pattern recognition, ⦁ memory, ⦁ problem solving, ⦁ and many other aspects of human cognition 20 THE LINGUISTIC APPROACH ⦁ Domain of Language ⦁ What is Language? ⦁ How do we acquire Language? ⦁ What parts of the brain underlie language use? ⦁ Linguists ⦁ Hypothesizes about the human capacity for language and what it indicates about the nature of the human brain. 21 THE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH (COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE) ⦁ Attempt to explain cognitive processes in terms of underlying brain mechanisms ⦁ Describe the biological ‘hardware’ upon which mental ‘software’ supposedly runs ⦁ Neuroscientists ⦁ Learn more the structures and functions of the human brain and how they relate to the behaviors we observe in people: ⦁ using language, solving problems, and remembering. 22 THE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPROACH ⦁ Building devices that attempt to mimic complex thought processes ⦁ Getting computers to perform tasks that have (previously) required human intelligence ⦁ Computer Scientists (Artificial Intelligence) ⦁ Attempt to model human capacities ⦁ to design machines that do at least part of what humans do in a variety of areas,  motor activities  problem solving  language learning. 23  The University of Windsor team prepares for the drag race. The International Autonomous Robot Racing Competition (IARRC 2012) in which students create small scale vehicles which make use of sensor, GPS, artificial intelligence at UBCon Saturday , July 28, 2012. 24 25 26 27 THE PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH ⦁ The oldest of all disciplines in CS ⦁ Formulating & answering questions about the universe ⦁ Reasoning – deductive & inductive ⦁ Deductive – application of rules of logic to statements about the world  UNIMAS students sleep three hours every night  Ali is a UNIMAS student  Ali sleeps three hours every night ⦁ Inductive – drawing conclusions based on commonalities observed in specific instances  Maxi, the Persian cat, has four legs. Lola, the Siamese cat, has four legs.  All cats have four legs. ⦁ Address the issues such as: ⦁ the nature of knowing (epistemology) ⦁ the mind-body distinction ⦁ the mind-brain distinction 28 THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH ⦁ Study of the relation between human culture and human thought ⦁ how people understand and organize the material objects, events, and experiences that make up their world ⦁ The need to view the operations of mind in particular physical and social environments. ⦁ How thought works in different cultural settings ⦁ Possible differences in modes of thinking across cultures. 29 THE LEARNING SCIENCES APPROACH (EDUCATION/TRAINING) ⦁ Application of findings in Cognitive Science in Education (Training) ⦁ Learning ⦁ Formal ⦁ Informal (Organization) ⦁ Design of Learning Environments ⦁ Technology-Supported 30 STUDYING THE MIND: PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS ⦁ Understanding how the mind works enable practitioners, designers, scholars, etc to: ⦁ develop ways to OPTIMIZE human performance ⦁ Appreciate and understand the gift of being HUMAN 31  Cognitive Science: Its Developmental History 32 THE BEGINNINGS: PROVINCE OF PHILOSOPHY ⦁ Greek Philosophers ⦁ Study of the Mind (Epistemology) ⦁ Nature of human knowledge  Source?  Virtue - Innate (Plato)  Experience/Senses (Aristotle) ⦁ Other Philosophers Plato Aristotle ⦁ Rationalism - Thinking & Reasoning ⦁ Descartes (French) ⦁ Liebniz (German) ⦁ Timeline ⦁ 350 B.C. – 19th Century Descartes Leibniz 33 DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ⦁ Initiation of laboratory methods for systematic study of mental operations ⦁ Introspection (looking inside of own experience) ⦁ Behaviorism Wilhelm Wundt ⦁ Denying existence of MIND ⦁ Examine relation between observable stimuli & observable behavioral responses ⦁ Timeline ⦁19th Century – 1950s ⦁ Experimental foundation J.B. Watson 34 B. F. Skinner BEHAVIORISM: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov Stimulus.... Response = Learning (Involuntary) 35 BEHAVIORISM: OPERANT CONDITIONING B. F. Skinner Behaviour is modified as a result of its consequences (reward/punishment) 36 EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE SCIENCE ⦁ Capacity of human thinking limited ⦁ Short Term Memory (limited to ±7 items) ⦁ To overcome – recoding information into George Miller (1956) chunks ⦁ Growth of Artificial Intelligence ⦁ Primitive computers in existence ⦁ Development in Linguistics ⦁ Language ability (mental grammar) Marvin Minsky John McCarthy ⦁ Reject Behaviorism ⦁ Language is used creatively, NOT parroted Noam 37 Chomsky Allen Newell & Herbert Simon  Study of Human Cognition Accounting for Differences 38  Early Approaches: Accounting for Difference: Suggested Views 39 ACCOUNTING FOR DIFFERENCES: FRANZ JOSEPH GALL ⦁ Questioning why the ability to memorize vary amongst people ⦁ Some could memorize without even understanding materials. ⦁ Observed & claimed that there exists a connection between ability to memorize & “large protruding eyes” ⦁ Bodily structure related to human German anatomist ability. ⦁ Functioning of human brain ⦁ Relationship exists between brain structure & function. 40 GALL’S CONCLUSIONS... ⦁ The brain is the sole organ of the mind ⦁ generally accepted today ⦁ Human basic character & intellectual traits are (1758 - 1828) innately determined ⦁ still a controversial issue – nature-nurture question ⦁ Structures differ according to their function ⦁ has significant implications ⦁ Neurons (nerve cells) respond to repeated experiences by adding links (synapses) to other neurons  E.g. Playing football - heredity cannot do this alone. ⦁ Development of areas in brain correspond to shape of the skull  Can infer traits by examining shape of skull! 41 GALL’S CONCLUSIONS: EMERGENCE OF PHRENOLOGY ⦁ Argued that faculties of mind accepted by philosophers were too general or vague ⦁ Proposed a system which listed a large number of more specific faculties of mind ⦁ Predicting people’s abilities & personality traits by measuring “bumps on their skull” Localization of function? 42 ACCOUNTING FOR DIFFERENCES: PAUL BROCA ⦁ Initially believed that intelligence can be assessed by size of skull (craniometry) ⦁ After worked with patients whose language function was compromised through injury or stroke, concluded that: French Surgeon ⦁ Craniometry is incorrect ⦁ Evidence of lesion in brain (left frontal lobe) contribute to patients’ language loss (aphasia) Wernicke’s Area Localization of function! 1861 43 MORE ON BROCA’S AREA ⦁ Broca - “we speak with the left hemisphere” ⦁ first evidence of the existence of a “language centre” in the brain ⦁ first area of the brain to be associated with a specific function—in this case, language. 44  memory More Recent Approaches (late 19th – 20th century) → Localization of Function 45 SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN ⦁ That sensory & motor functions can be localized in specific regions of the brain ⦁ Hughlings-Jackson (Father of British Neurologist) ⦁ Once demonstrated & accepted, study of mental processes become more opened ⦁ Effects of experimentally induced brain lesions on English other major areas of cognition (e.g. learning & problem Neurologist solving) – Karl S. Lashley ⦁ Theorized that physical memory traces (engrams) must be made in the brain when learning occurs ⦁ Specific cortical functions CANNOT reasonably be assigned to specific areas ⦁ The more complex a behaviour, the less it can be linked to a particular region of brain American ⦁ Intelligence = General Capacity Psychologist 46  Karl S. Lashley ⦁ Principle of Equipotentiality ⦁ Brain is sufficiently plastic, such that when one region of the brain is surgically removed (or damaged through injury) another region takes over the damaged region's function. ⦁ Principle of Mass Action ⦁ Cerebral cortex acts as one—as a whole—in many types of learning 47 IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS… ⦁ How does the brain function? ⦁ Unitary (general capacity)? ⦁ Identifiably different aspects? 48 EVIDENCE FROM NEUROSURGEONS (WILDER PENFIELD) ⦁ Surgery on human patients’ brain, performed with the patients awake, under local anaesthesia of scalp ⦁ Patients can remain conscious for certain surgery types ⦁ Brain has no sense receptors (feel no pain) ⦁ Stimulating certain cortex areas with a weak electric current Canadian evoked specific motor effects Neurosurgeon ⦁ Clenched fist, tingling tongues 49 EVIDENCE FROM NEUROSURGEONS (WILDER PENFIELD) ⦁ Hallucinations & memories (or experiences reconstructed as memories) can also be elicited in this way, or that access to words can be blocked for the duration of the stimulation. Generate pursuit of knowledge about the motor, sensory, and especially the intellectual (perceptual memory) functions of the human brain 50 BRAIN EFFECTS? 51 INSIGHTS ON PERCEPTION ⦁ Initial belief – signals sent from sensory organs travelled to brain at speed of light ⦁ Too fast to measure ⦁ Invent instrument (chronograph) capable of measuring reaction time to Hermann Helmholtz stimuli (short duration, rapid changes ⦁ It takes longer to react to stimulus applied to a receptor that is farther to the brain ⦁ Humans have conscious & unconscious process 52 INSIGHTS ON ILLUSIONS ⦁ Visual illusions are result of unconscious process ⦁ Visual perceptions are based on unconscious inferences ⦁ Unconscious conclusions How many black dots can you see? Eye and brain make unconscious inferences Humans have conscious & unconscious process 53 ARE THESE CIRCLES REALLY MOVING? 54 FOCUS ON THE TINY PLUS SIGN – WHAT DO YOU SEE? 55 INSIGHTS ON ATTENTION (WILHELM WUNDT) ⦁ Agree that unconscious inferences can determine perceptions ⦁ Claim that another aspect of consciousness is attention ⦁ Paying attention = certain features of what one is generally conscious of at a given time are perceived MOST clearly (the rest fades into the background) 56 A young or an old lady? What do you see? 57  INSIGHTS ON MENTAL REPRESENTATION & PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE (WILHELM WUNDT) ⦁ That ‘mental representation’ exists for a speaker before he/she forms a sentence ⦁ That variations in use of grammar allow speaker to emphasize one or another aspect of this mental representation ⦁ Language = generative ⦁ Utterances =product of creative synthesis of one or more mental contents, following specific grammatical rules 58 INSIGHTS ON HUMAN MEMORY ⦁ Using himself as a subject of experimental methods, provided insights into human capability for remembering & forgetting ⦁ Technique – learning nonsense syllables & count trials to memorize ⦁ Technique – memorize material then recall & relearn at later time (memory & association) ⦁ His contributions ⦁ Convert unobservable mental processes into Hermann Ebbinghaus observable behavior ⦁ Measure behavior reliably ⦁ Show how behavior is systematically affected by relevant factors & conditions 59 INSIGHTS ON CHILDREN’S INTELLIGENCE ⦁ The first to publish a paper on intelligence testing of school children (completion test) ⦁ Early movement for Psychometrics ⦁ The theory and measurement of psychological variables Many employers now use psychometrics to identify personality and behavior patterns of prospective employees - to know in advance what they will find out about candidates’ strengths and suitability 60 PSYCHOMETRICS FOR THE WORKPLACE 61  Measuring Differences in Human Intelligence Sensory & Perceptual Functions of the Brain 62 SENSORY DISCRIMINATION ⦁ Set out to measure diversity of mental abilities objectively ⦁ “the more perceptive the senses are of difference, the larger the field upon which our judgment and intelligence can act” ⦁ Infer differences in intelligence via differences in sensory differences Francis Galton 63 SENSORY DISCRIMINATION.. 64 PSYCHOMETRICS ⦁ Argued that measuring sensory discrimination would NOT lead to insights into general mental capacity ⦁ Proposed tests to assess differences in “higher mental faculties” ⦁ Memory ⦁ Imagination ⦁ Comprehension ⦁ Perceptual skills ⦁ Motor skill Alfred Binet ⦁ Tests must be sensitive to individuals’ background 65 THE FIRST “INTELLIGENT TESTS” ⦁ Purpose – to ensure that education could be directed appropriately to children of different ability levels ⦁ IQ testing (Intelligent Quotient) ⦁ Risks of such Test? ⦁ End of becoming basis of assignment/selection instead of identification of those requiring help ⦁ Emphasis on conformity with expectations, downgrading originality of thought as intelligent factor ⦁ Investigators’ notion of what intelligence consists of influence nature of tests conducted 66 INTELLIGENT OR NOT? 67  Recent Approaches to Study of Intelligence 68 STERNBERG’S APPROACH ⦁ Intelligence = “the purposive adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of real world environments relevant to one’s life & abilities” goal-directed adaptive behavior 69 STERNBERG’S ‘TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE’ ⦁ Intelligence ⦁ Leads us to try to adapt to our environment (Contextual) ⦁ Provides us with the ability to: (Experiential) ⦁ deal with novel tasks & situational demands ⦁ automatize processing of information ⦁ Involves 3 mental processes (Componential) ⦁ Metacomponents Implement metacomponents’ command Interdependent  Executive processes ⦁ Knowledge-acquisition used to plan, monitor, problem solve & interactive ⦁ Performance processes Gaining new knowledge 70 TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE 71 INTELLIGENCE, INSIGHTS & PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ A person with insights can find solutions to tasks that require thinking outside of the constraints ⦁ Thinking outside the box ⦁ Practical intelligence – common sense (usually not taught) The possibility of Intelligence consists of sets of learning to be more skills & types of knowledge intelligent that CAN be taught 72 DO YOU HAVE INSIGHTS? Connect all the dots with straight lines, without lifting pencil off the page 73 GARDNER’S APPROACH (NEUROLOGICAL EVIDENCE) ⦁ Intelligence has various aspects (frames of mind) ⦁ All the intelligences are interdependent & function in harmony ⦁ Multiple Intelligences ⦁ Linguistics ⦁ Musical ⦁ Logical-Mathematical ⦁ Spatial ⦁ Bodily-Kinesthetic ⦁ Intrapersonal ⦁ Interpersonal ⦁ Naturalist 74 HOW ARE YOU SMART? 75 LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the language intelligence enjoy saying, hearing, and seeing words. ⦁ Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words. ⦁ Sensitivity to the different functions of language. ⦁ They like telling stories, motivated by books, records, dramas, opportunities for writing. 76 MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the musical intelligence like the rhythm and sound of language. ⦁ Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythms, pitch, and timbre. ⦁ Appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. ⦁ They like poems & songs, enjoy humming or singing along with music. 77 LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the logical- mathematical intelligence enjoy exploring how things are related. ⦁ They like to understand how things work. ⦁ They like mathematical concepts. ⦁ They enjoy puzzles and manipulative games. ⦁ They are good at critical thinking. 78 SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the spatial intelligence remember things visually, including exact sizes and shapes of objects. ⦁ They like posters, charts, and graphics. ⦁ They like any kind of visual clues. ⦁ They enjoy drawing. 79 BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the body movement intelligence like to move, dance, wiggle, walk, and swim. ⦁ They have good fine motor skills. They like to take things apart and put them back together. ⦁ They are often good at sports. 80 INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ Person with detailed and accurate self-knowledge. ⦁ Has access to one’s own feelings and the ability to guide his own behavior. ⦁ Has knowledge of one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence 81 INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE ⦁ People who are strong in the social intelligence like to develop ideas and learn from other people. They like to talk. They have good social skills. ⦁ Capacity to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. 82 NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE ⦁ Human ability to recognize plants, animals and other parts of the natural environment, such as clouds or rocks. ⦁ Archeologists, botanists 83 THE CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE ⦁ Brain damage affecting intrapersonal & interpersonal knowledge ⦁ Accidental explosion - rod passing through left cheek, pierced his skull, exited through top of head ⦁ Personality underwent radical change 84 85  End of Learning Unit 1 Read Sobel: Chapter 1 91