Individual Behaviour And Learning Notes (Unit-II)

**[INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND LEARNING]** **[UNIT-II -- NOTES]** **INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR -- FRAMEWORK -- FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR OF AN INDIVIDUAL -- LEARNING -- NATURE -- THEORIES OF LEARNING -- PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING - LEARNING AND ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR** **INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR** Human behavio...

**[INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND LEARNING]** **[UNIT-II -- NOTES]** **INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR -- FRAMEWORK -- FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR OF AN INDIVIDUAL -- LEARNING -- NATURE -- THEORIES OF LEARNING -- PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING - LEARNING AND ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR** **INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR** Human behavior, which is considered a complex phenomenon, is very difficult to define in absolute terms. It is primarily a combination of responses to external and internal stimuli. These responses would reflect the psychological structure of the person and may result from the combination of biological and psychological processes, which interpret them, respond to them in an appropriate manner, and learn from the result of these responses. Individual behavior can be defined **as a mix of responses to external and internal stimuli**. It is the way a person reacts in different situations and the way someone expresses different emotions like anger, happiness, love, etc. To get a brief idea about individual behavior let us learn about the individual behavior framework and other key elements related to it. **Individual Behavior Framework** On the basis of these elements, psychologist Kurt Lewin stated the Field theory and outlined the behavior framework. This psychological theory studies the patterns of interaction between an individual and the environment. The theory is expressed using the formula: B = F(P,E) where, B -- Behavior, F - Behavior Function, P -- Person, and E - Environment around the person. Say, for example, a well-paid person who loses his job in a recession may behave differently when unemployed. Whenever people buy something, for example, a car, both the buyer and the seller sign a contract that specifies the terms of the sales agreement. Similarly, most people, when they begin a working relationship with an organization formulate a psychological contract with their employer. A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations that an individual holds with respect to his or her contributions to the organization and the organization\'s response to those contributions. A psychological contract is not written down like a legal contract. An individual makes a variety of contributions to an organization in the form of---*efforts, skills, ability, time, loyalty and so forth*. These contributions presumably satisfy various needs and requirements of the organization. In return for contributions, the organization provides incentives such as pay, promotion, and job security to the employee. Just as the contributions available from the individual must satisfy the organization\'s needs, the incentives must serve the employees\' needs in return. If both the individual and the organization consider the psychological contract fair and equitable, they will be satisfied with the relationship and are likely to continue it. If either party perceives an imbalance or iniquity in the contract, it may initiate a change. A major challenge faced by an organization, thus, is to manage psychological contracts. One specific aspect of managing psychological contracts is managing the person-job fit. The \'person-job fit\' is the extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the incentives offered by the organization. In theory, each employee has a specific set of needs to fulfill and a set of job related behaviors and abilities to contribute. If the organization can take complete advantage of those behaviors and abilities and exactly fulfill the employee\'s needs, it will achieve a perfect person-job fit. Of course, such a precise, level of person-job fit is seldom achieved due to various reasons such as imperfect selection procedures, differences in individual skills, and constant change in the needs and requirements of people and organization. Thus, the behavior of individuals in organization is the primary concern of management and it is essential that the managers should have an understanding of the factors influencing the behavior of the employees they manage. **Factors Affecting Behavior of an Individual in the Organization**: Organizations are composed of individuals. Each individual is an island in himself/herself, each subject to particular motives, aspirations, perceptions and abilities. The behavior of each individual is influenced by several factors as shown in below diagram. **ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:** Environmental factors include such variables as economic, social, political, and the like; these factors are mainly external and will influence individual behavior considerably. The economic environment is an important determinant of individual behavior. All work is performed within an economic framework that both, directly and indirectly, impinges on an organization's environment. The economic environment is a synthesis of several factors, the prominent among them being the employment level, wage rates, economic outlook, and technological change. *Employment opportunities* will have a strong influence on individual behavior. Fewer job opportunities increase the emphasis on job security and can change the basic motivation pattern of the individual. Where job opportunities are several tendencies of job-hopping will increase. Loyalty to one's organization becomes irrelevant. Wages satisfy various individual needs. They provide food and shelter are measures of achievement and can even serve as a status symbol. Money is a complex variable and its effect on behavior varies tremendously. It is well-known that wages attract people to certain organizations and determine their satisfaction with jobs. The *general economic outlook* also influences individual expectations, especially those employed in industries severely affected by economic cycles. In fact, some employees experience layoffs and recall during their entire working life, while others are insulated from the economy. Individuals who experience frequent layoffs are more likely to be motivated by factors that affect job security. Other individuals would consider job security to be relatively unimportant and would be motivated by other factors. *Technological change* is included as an economic factor because of its potential effects on individual job opportunities. Technological change has its strongest impact on lower-level jobs, although increased automation, robotics, computerization, and more sophisticated production technologies can affect individuals at all levels. In addition to changing employment opportunities, technological change has an effect on job design. Although the individual may stay employed, the skill required to perform the job may be reduced, thus increasing the downward pressure on wage rates. Both the decreased skill required and the perceived lack of advancement opportunities can have major effects on an individual's job satisfaction. ***CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT*** is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society's basic values, perceptions, work ethic, preferences, and behaviors. People grow up in a particular society that shapes their basic beliefs, values, and behaviors. Culture varies from country to country and these variations produce different behaviors across the countries. [Work ethic, achievement need, effort-reward expectations, and values are important cultural factors having behavioral implications.] The *work ethic* is tinged with morals. In the context of *job ethics,* it implies hard work and commitment to work. A strong work ethic ensures motivated employees and the opposite is true when the work ethic is weak. *Achievement Need* too has influenced employee behavior. A person with a high need to achieve tends to see a high degree of personal responsibility, set realistic goals, take moderate risks, and use personal performance feedback to satisfy his or her need to achieve. From the cultural perspective, it is important to note, that the *Need to Achieve* is a **learned phenomenon**. This suggests that various cultural attributes can affect the need to achieve either positively or negatively. Although the work ethic and the need to achieve are not the same, they do affect individuals in similar ways. Not surprisingly, individuals with a low need to achieve will be more difficult to motivate using traditional motivational techniques. Similarly, individuals with a high need to achieve would be relatively unhappy in an organization that did not reward achieving power. It is too well known that a perfect match between *effort and reward* will produce better performance from an individual. When the individual perceives that he or she has been treated unfairly, the performance suffers. This phenomenon is observed in most of the cultures. *Value* is tinged with moral flour involving an individual's judgement of what is right, good and desirable. Values influence one's perception attitudes and through these, his or her behavior. *POLITICAL factors* in which individual lives can affect individual behavior through several factors. The stability of the government can affect employment opportunities, both in quantity and quality. Politically unstable environments have difficulty attracting industry and therefore experience problems in maintaining a steady level of employment. The quality of jobs can also be affected through low capital investment. Because companies are reluctant to invest large sums of money in a politically unstable country, many available jobs are either agriculturally oriented or in other types of labor intensive industries. Consequently, large segments of the population are either in temporary employment or in jobs that satisfy only their basic needs. The political ideology of a country affects individual behavior primarily through the relative freedoms available to its citizens. For example, in controlled societies, educational and career opportunities are less open to individual aspirations than in less controlled ones. Management structures and philosophies in controlled societies have a significant impact on the decision strategies and methods of implementation available to managers. The relative freedoms available can affect career choice, job design, motivation methods, and finally, individual performance. **[PERSONAL FACTORS:]** **(i) Age:** Age affects regularity in attendance due to age related illness. Younger employees are able to better adapt to changes as compared to older employees. **(ii) Gender**: Women employees are considered to be sincerer and dedicated as compared to men. They take lesser interest in union activities. Men are considered to be stronger. **(iii) Education:** Educated employees are more disciplined and better in managing themselves. They expect challenging jobs, attractive salary and faster career growth. **(iv) Abilities**: Ability refers to individual's capacity to perform the various task in a job. Ability of an individual is made up to two sets of skills-intellectual and physical. *Intellectual abilities* are needed to perform mental activities. Some of the more relevant dimensions making up intellectual abilities include Number Aptitude (ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic); Verbal Comprehension (ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other); Perceptual speed (ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately); and inductive reasoning (ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem period). *Physical abilities* manifest in one's stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like. Management must identify an employees physical abilities if those are the major inputs required to perform a task. **(v) Marital Status:** Married employees prefer to settle in a steady job and earn a fair income. Marriage creates greater family commitment and makes a person more responsible. they would be regular in attendance, work diligently and do not change jobs very often. **(vi) Number of Dependents**: There is a correlation between number of dependents an employee has and his or her absences and satisfaction. Number of children an employee has is positively related to absence, especially among females. Similarly there is positive correlation between number of dependents and satisfaction. **[PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:]** **(i) Values: Value represents the moral structure of a person. They govern the way a person behaves, communicates and interacts with others. It helps to understand the attitude and motivation of individuals and factors influencing perception. A person who values honesty would be honest in his dealings.** **(ii) Attitude: Attitude is the tendency to act in a certain way towards people, events, ideas or objects. Those with positive attitude towards work, would be regular, perform well and be loyal.** **(iii) Perception: Perception is described as a person 's view of reality. If a subordinate is perceived to be inefficient, he would not be given challenging jobs. If an employee is perceived as creative, he would be assigned jobs requiring creativity and innovation.** **(iv) Personality: Personality refers to qualities and characteristics that define a person. It determines a person 's pattern of behaviour, thought and feelings. It determines the type of activities that a person is suited for.** **(v) Learning: It is relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience. Positive experiences in the workplace influence positive behaviour in the long run. Well-designed training programs play an important role in improving learning. Many organizations send their executives to leadership programs to improve their leadership behaviour.** **[ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS:]** \(i) Organisational structure: It shows the formal authority and relationship between persons in an organisation. A sound organizational structure provides role clarity and enables efficient functioning. \(ii) Leadership: It influences employee performance and growth. If the leader is of democratic nature, employees enjoy better freedom to contribute their ideas. But when the leader is an autocrat, he would command and control his subordinates. This paves path to low morale and frustration among employees. \(iii) Reward system: If the reward system in an organization recognizes good performance, employees would display positive behaviour. Reward systems are established to motivate employees for better performance. \(iv) Provision of Facilities: A well designed layout with good lighting, ventilation and control of noise induce better behaviour. Employees would have a positive vibration, concentrate better and perform well. **[LEARNING]** **[MEANING AND DEFINATION:]** One of the crucial psychological processes is learning, through which human behavior is determined. It is a never-ending procedure that is everlasting. So, learning can be defined as the summation of behavioral transformations which are the outcome of knowledge attained during the training. An individual attains knowledge and practicality from the training process which acts as feedback to the individual and a reference for future responses. Learning acts as a dominant encouraging factor for the employees to remain connected within organizations. It influences the abilities, various roles in life, and motivation level of the individuals. Besides influencing individual behavior, learning also plays a vital role in the management of knowledge. Through knowledge management, an organization's acquisition and sharing capacity get boosted. As a result, knowledge can be utilized properly to make improvements in the continuity and prosperity of the organization. ―Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience. **-- Stephen P. Robbins** ―Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience -- **Steers and Porter**. ―Learning is the process by which a person constructs knowledge, skills, and capabilities -- **Martyn Sloman.** ― Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour brought about as a consequence of behaviour. -- **Stanford.** ― Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of prior experience -- **E.R. Hilgard** **[NATURE OF LEARNING: ]** Simply told, learning is understood as the modification of behavior through practice, training, or experience. This simple meaning needs to be supplemented with **five essential components of learning** to take its import clear.' *First,* **learning involves change,** although the change may be for good or bad from an organization's point of view. The change may not be evident until a situation arises in which the new behavior can occur; learning is not always reflected in performance. *Second,* **not all changes reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively permanent.** Temporary changes may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning. This requirement, therefore, rules out behavior changes caused by fatigue or drugs. *Third,* **learning is reflected in behavior**. A change in an individual's thought process or attitudes, not accompanied by behavior, is no learning. It should be further clarified that learning needs to result in behavior potentiality and not necessarily in the behaviour itself. The reason for this distinction lies in the fact that an individual may learn but owing to lack of motivation, may not exhibit any changed behavior. *Fourth,* **the change in behavior should occur because of experience, practice, and training.** This implies that behavior caused by maturation, disease, or physical damage does not constitute learning. *Fifth,* **the practice or experience must be reinforced for learning to occur.** If reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experience the behavior will eventually disappear. Learning is not confined to one's schooling. Learning occurs throughout one's life. **[THEORIES OF LEARNING ]** The Theories of Learning are as follows: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive Theory Social learning **1. Classical Conditioning:** Classical conditioning grew out of experiments to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell, conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. A simple surgical procedure allowed Pavlov [to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a dog.] When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog had no salivation. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered. The dog had learned to respond that is, to salivate to the bell. The meat was an unconditioned stimulus. It invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way. The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the unconditioned response. The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus. While it was originally neutral, after the bell was paired with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a response when presented alone. The last key concept is the conditioned response. This describes the behaviour of the dog salivating in reaction to the bell alone. **Classical conditioning is passive.** **Something happens and we react in a specific way.** It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event. It can explain simple reflexive behaviours. But most behaviour particularly the complex behaviour of individuals in organisation is **emitted** rather than elicited. [It is voluntary rather than reflexive. ] [For example,] if you\'ve ever been in a public area and heard a familiar notification chime, this classical conditioning example will certainly ring true for you. You hear that tone and instinctively reach for your smartphone, only to realize it\'s coming from someone else\'s phone. The chime or tone is a neutral stimulus. Through classical conditioning, you\'ve come to associate it with the positive feeling of reading a message. It\'s the same reason why you might reach for your phone when you think you feel it vibrating in your pocket, even if it isn\'t. **2) Operant conditioning:** Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, **an association is made between a behavior and a consequence** (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. [Skinner strongly believes classical conditioning responses tend to be triggered by innate reflexes that occur automatically]. He called this kind of **behavior a respondent**. [He distinguished respondent behavior from operant behavior]. Operant behavior was the term Skinner used to describe [a behavior that is reinforced by the consequences that follow it]. Those consequences play an important role in whether a behavior is performed again. Skinner used the term **operant** to refer to any \"active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.\" [Skinner\'s theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day.] Skinner's ideas were based on Edward Thorndike's [**law of effect**, which stated that behavior that elicits positive consequences will probably be repeated, while behavior that elicits negative consequences will probably not be repeated]. Skinner introduced the **concept of reinforcement** into Thorndike's ideas, specifying that behavior that is reinforced will probably be repeated (or strengthened). To study operant conditioning, Skinner conducted experiments using a "Skinner Box," a small box that had a lever at one end that would provide food or water when pressed. An animal, like a pigeon or rat, was placed in the box where it was free to move around. Eventually the animal would press the lever and be rewarded. Skinner found that this process resulted in the animal pressing the lever more frequently. Skinner would measure learning by tracking the rate of the animal's responses when those responses were reinforced. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behavior. Reinforcement strengthens behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. He argued that creating pleasant consequences to follow the specific form of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior. The consequences of behavior are used to influence, or shape behavior through three strategies: reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Operant conditioning is the process of modifying behavior using positive or negative consequences following specific behavior. For example, A dog trainer gives his dog a treat every time the dog raises its left paw. The dog learns that raising its left paw can earn him a food reward. It will raise his paw again and again for more treats. **3. Cognitive Theory:** The word cognitive is derived from "cognition", [which describes your ability to think, perceive, remember, and solve problems]. Cognitive learning is a learning process that results from the effective use and application of the brain. It focuses on helping you learn ways to maximize your brain\'s potential. When you master cognitive learning, you inculcate a habit of lifelong continuous learning. Cognitive learning helps you become an efficient team member, a resourceful leader, and a powerful speaker. With cognitive learning, you help your organization achieve its business goals and objectives. There are some psychologists who believe that neither classical conditioning nor operant conditioning learning theories views that most problem-solving situations are hard to explain. It is a cognitive theory that explains such situations. Cognition theory uses metacognition--- "thinking about thinking"---**to understand how thought processes influence learning**. Cognition refers to individual thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understanding, or views about oneself, and the environment. Cognitive argues that the person tries to form a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves and organizes all information relating to the events that may occur in the learning situation. **4. Social Learning:** Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching models - parents, teachers, peers, motion picture, television performers, bosses, and so on. These views that are learned through both observation and direct experiment have been called social learning theory. While social-learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning that is, it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences. It also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves. **[PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING:]** Learning principles help particularly to a training manager, gain maximum efficiency in a learning situation. However, blind adherence to these principles can often cause more harm than good. Each principle should therefore be interpreted and applied carefully in full consideration of the task being learned and the context in which the learning takes place. [Some principles of learning considered here are motivation, knowledge of results, reinforcement, schedule of learning, whole versus part learning, learning curves, and meaningfulness of material]. **MOTIVATION** is basic because without motivation learning does not take place or at least is not discernible. Motivation may be seen at different levels of complexity of a situation. A thirsty rat will learn the path through the maze to a dish of water; it is not likely to do so well, or even more purposefully at all if it is satisfied. On a broader level, a college student must have the need and drive to accomplish a task and reach a specific goal. **[KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS]** It is generally conceded that knowledge regarding one's own performance is a necessary condition for learning. Feedback about the performance will enable the learner to know where he stands and to initiate corrective action if any deviation from the expected goal has taken place. There are some tasks for which such feedback is virtually mandatory for learning. A crane operator, for example, would have trouble learning to manipulate the controls without knowing how the crane responds to control actions. For instance, the knowledge of results in industrial training if you consider workers had to learn to cut discs from a tungsten rod, a task which required complex hand and foot coordination. The trainees were able to see their action patterns traced on paper as they attempted to duplicate the patterns of experienced operators. **[REINFORCEMENT]** is the single most important principle of learning. Reinforcement may be understood as anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement. A distinction is made between motivation and reinforcement. Motivation is a basic psychological process and is broader and more complex than is implied by the learning principle of reinforcement. Besides, the needs that lead to motivation are cognitive and are, therefore, unobservable. Reinforcers are external environmental events that follow a response. In general terms, motivation is an internal explanation of behavior, and reinforcement is an external explanation of behavior. Thus, the perspectives and explanations of behavior as being due to motivation and reinforcement are quite different. A distinction is also made between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. *Positive reinforcement* strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of desirable consequences. The reinforcement consists of a positive experience for the individual. In more general terms, we often say that positive reinforcement consists of a reward for the individual and when presented contingent upon behavior tends to increase the probability that the behavior will occur again. For example, if an employee does something well and is complimented for it by the boss, the probability that the employee shall repeat the behavior will strengthen. In *negative reinforcement,* the individual exhibits the desired behavior to avoid something unpleasant. An example might be an employee who does something to avoid incurring a reprimand from his or her boss. If an employee has the habit of coming late to work, he or she may learn that this increases the probability of reprimand; assuming this is an unpleasant experience, the employee may begin coming on time to avoid criticism. Thus, the effect of negative reinforcement is *avoidance learning.* **[SCHEDULES OF LEARNING ]** Probably one of the most well-established and well-documented learning principles is that distributed or spaced practice is superior to continuous or massed practice. This seems to be true for both simple laboratory tasks and highly complex tasks. Actually, schedules of learning can be manipulated in three different ways 1) during practice sessions 2) during the duration of rest sessions 3) during the positioning of rest sessions. The evidence seems to support the motion of short practice periods and moderate rest periods. Of course, exact definitions of the terms "short" and "moderate" need to be established empirically for each individual task, as does the optimal positioning of the rest periods. However, it is usually much more effective to have short frequent rest periods than to have only one or two long rest periods and one or two long practice periods." **[WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING ]** A great deal of work has been done in the psychology of learning to decide whether learning a whole job is superior to breaking the job into parts and learning the parts. In parts learning, the individual is not only required to learn each individual part but must be able to combine the separate parts so that the whole performance can be accomplished. No overall conclusion, however, has been reached in this field. **[LEARNING CURVES:]** A highly useful learning concept that is valid for a wide range of situations is the learning curve, a diagrammatic representation of the amount of learning in relation to time. A typical learning curve will show on y-axis the amount learnt and on the x-axis the passage of time represents generalized learning curve, which shows the extent to which the rate of learning increases or decreases with practice. Certain characteristics are common to all learning curves. one such feature is the *Initial spurt*. In the beginning, it is natural that the rate of learning exhibits a spurt. Usually, the graph levels off at some stage, of learning and exhibits a *spurt.* Usually, the graph levels off at some stage, indicating the maximum performance has been achieved. Apparently, at the beginning of the learning process, the subject is highly motivated and seems to exhibit a significant surge of effort. Many experienced trainers exploit this initial spurt by selecting the most important items to be communicated and presenting them as a package to the students at the beginning of the training unit. In many ways it is possible to exemplify the *initial spurt* with the aphorism "*THE FIRST STEP IS THE BEST STEP"*. Another feature of the curve is the *learning plateau.* At some point in the learning process, there is a flattening off in terms of improvement, a plateau. Frequently the process of learning is marked by discontinuities and involves escalating from one plateau to another. Most learners are only too aware of the experience of finding themselves on a plateau, which manifests itself in the feeling that they are never going to get anywhere. Jumping from one plateau to another is called *organization of learning.* Organization of learning is achieved when the learner discovers a new and more effective method of performing tasks. For example, in mathematics, the student learns to apply calculus to solve the problems of business. *Disorganization of learning* is an actual falloff in performance. This arises when the subject must choose between alternative methods of tackling a task. The last characteristic of the learning curve is the *End spurt.* The end spurt is preceded by fatigue which is likely to set in with the passage of time. when the training session draws nearer to an end, and the subject realizes this, there occurs a resurgence of interest and effort to learn more. This revival is called the *End spurt.* **[MEANINGFULNESS OF MATERIAL]** A definite relationship has been established between learning and the meaningfulness of the subject learned. The more meaningful the material, the later learning proceeds. The acquisition of nonsense syllables proceeds more slowly than that of prose or poetry. In a broader sense, in a program of learning where each task makes for meaningfulness, trainers do have certain techniques that increase meaningless for trainees. Organizing meaningful units, creating associations with already familiar terms, and providing a conceptual basis or logical reason for the material are some of the practical possibilities. **\*LEARNING AND ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR** The specific application of learning to the organizational situation: reducing absenteeism through lotteries, substituting well-pay for sick pay, indiscipline problem of employees, and developing effective training programs. ***Using Lotteries To Reduce Absenteeism*** Management can make use of the learning theory to reduce absenteeism. For example, in 1966 the management of a hardware retail store found that tardiness and absenteeism on the part of employees were too serious. The management embarked on an innovative program to tackle the problem. The program consisted of a lottery with attractive prizes. What was unique about the lottery was its eligibility requirements. Only employees with perfect attendance and no tardiness were eligible to contest. The program was a rousing success. Attendance improved so much that even a storm could not deter the employees from being present at work. ***Well --pay Vs Sick-pay*** Most organizations provide their employees with paid sick leave as part of the employee fringe benefits. But ironically, organizations with paid sick leave programme experience almost twice the absenteeism that organizations without such a programme. The reality is that sick leave encourages wrong behavior absence from work. Organizations should have programme designed to encourage good attendance at work. In other words, an employee should be rewarded for good attendance and not for frequent absence from work. An attendance bonus, which is practiced in most organizations is designed to encourage good attendance. ***Employee Indiscipline*** employee indiscipline exhibited in such acts as drunkenness on the job, late arrivals to work, insubordination, stealing company property and the like is common. Every manager is frequently confronted by such indiscipline. The manager will respond with disciplinary actions such as verbal warnings, oral reprimands, or temporary suspensions. Research on discipline shows that the manager should act immediately to correct the problem, match the severity of punishment to the severity of 'the crime', and ensure that the employee sees the link between the punishment and the undesirable behavior. Punishment for indiscipline is hardly the answer to the problem. The person being punished can perceive the punishment because of being caught rather than as an incentive to replace undesirable behaviors with another set of behaviors. Disciplining employees for undesirable behavior only tell them [what not to do]. It does not tell them what alternative behavior is preferred. The result is that this form of punishment frequently leads to only short-term suppression of the undesirable behavior rather than to its elimination. Continued use of punishment rather than positive reinforcement also tends to produce a conditional fear of the manager. As the punishment agent, the manager becomes associated the employee's mind with adverse consequences. Employees respond by "hiding" from their boss. Hence the use of the punishment can undermine manager-employee relations." The popularity of discipline lies in its ability to produce quick results in the short run. Managers are reinforced to use discipline because it produces an immediate change in employee behavior. But in the long run, when used without positive reinforcement of desirable behavior, it is likely to lead to employee frustration, fear of the manager, recurrences of problem behavior, increase in absenteeism, and a decrease in turnover. **Developing Training Programs** Learning is useful in developing effective training programs. A social learning theory, in particular, tells the organizers, that training should provide a model; it needs to grab the trainee's attention; provide motivational properties, help the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use; provide opportunities to practice new behaviors; provide positive rewards for accomplishments; and if the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what he has learned on the job. \*\*\*\*\*THE END\*\*\*\*\*