Teacher Characteristics & Student Learning PDF

For more than 25 years, I have asked my students to think back over their education in elementary, middle, and high school and remember the characteristics of their best teacher and those of their worst. Though the exact wording differs, without fail "best" teachers are interesting, competent, carin...

For more than 25 years, I have asked my students to think back over their education in elementary, middle, and high school and remember the characteristics of their best teacher and those of their worst. Though the exact wording differs, without fail "best" teachers are interesting, competent, caring, encouraging, and flexible, yet have demanding standards; "worst" teachers are boring, incompetent, distant, demeaning, and rigid with inflexible standards, or inconsistent with lax standards. After exploring reasons for students' choices, the message becomes quite clear: "best" teachers make students want to learn and reinforce their efforts, while "worst" teachers turn students off. My informal surveys about good teachers correspond to formal research on effective role models. According to Albert Bandura (1986; 1989), models whom children imitate are perceived as being warm and as having prestige, control over resources, and the potential to reinforce or punish behavior. Recent research confirms this. Primary-grade students reported good teachers to be caring, responsive, and stimulating (Daniels, Kalkman, & McCombs, 2001). This module examines the teacher's role as a socializing agent along with his/her bidirectional relationship with the student and its impact on learning. (See Figure 7.1.) The student comes to school with a unique combination of family and cultural background, learning style, abilities, motives, and interests. The teacher also comes to school with a unique combination of family and cultural background along with certain abilities and characteristics, such as teaching style, ways of management, and expectations. Student--teacher interactions take place in a classroom environment that may enhance or detract from learning. The most powerful socializing influence of the school lies in those who translate program goals into action---the teachers (Brophy, 1992). Teachers provide the environment for children's learning. They understand children's needs, interests, and abilities and can feel empathy for children's fears of failure. Teachers can encourage children to explore, to satisfy their natural curiosity, and to love learning--- to love it so much that it becomes part of their lives forever. Teachers also play a major role in helping children learn to deal with positions of authority, to cooperate with others, to cope with problems, and to achieve competence. The teacher is responsible for selecting materials relevant to the learner, for managing the group dynamics in the classroom, and for interacting individually with each child. When teachers interact with their students, they communicate attitudes about learning and behavior, as well as feelings about individuals. Following are some of the things effective teachers do (Levine & Levine, 1996): Provide time and opportunity to learn; pace instruction accordingly. Communicate high expectations for student success. Involve all students in learning activities by engaging them in discussion and providing motivating work. Adapt levels of instruction to learning needs and abilities of students. Ensure success for students as they progress through curriculum. The teacher--student relationship forms a different social experience for each child and, therefore, leads to different developmental outcomes. One explanation relates to perception, a biological construct that involves interpretation of stimuli by the brain. Factors such as maturation, attentiveness, past experiences, and emotions influence how a student perceives things, events, and interactions. A teacher's perception, and consequent presentation of information, are also influential in student learning. My daughter teaches English at a community college where the majority of students are from culturally diverse backgrounds. My daughter's literature class is the first exposure to classical works for many of her students. She develops engaging activities based on the perception of the particular literary work being discussed as a hero's journey. By having the students relate the work to their own life's personal journey, they come to understand and appreciate the literary piece. We will first examine characteristics of the teacher, and then characteristics of the student, that influence learning. Teacher Characteristics and Student Learning What characteristics of teachers foster student learning? For me, it was Mr. Brown's knowledge of who did well at what, who was friends with whom, and how to implement those facts to make everyone want to improve academically and socially. Teachers who try to work closely with each child and who understand group dynamics are more likely to provide a successful and rewarding learning environment. Studies have found that successful, or effective, teachers are those who are warm, enthusiastic, and generous with praise, and have high status. Also, successful teachers communicate well and are responsive to students. Conversely, unsuccessful, or ineffective, teachers are aloof, critical, and negative. They tend to communicate in ways that are difficult for students to understand and are unresponsive to students' needs. Teachers who are warm and friendly in their relationships with children are likely to encourage favorable rather than aggressive behavior and constructive, conscientious attitudes toward schoolwork (Brophy & Good, 1986; Daniels et al., 2001; Wayne & Youngs, 2003). When teachers communicate with children, learning is influenced; when teachers ask questions, verbalization is elicited from the child. For example, teachers' verbal styles have been found to have an impact on the development of language skills in preschool children (Schickedanz, 1990). Teachers who use expansive verbal descriptions and who encourage the children to converse with each other effect an increase in their students' verbal skills. It was also found that teachers who use reinforcement (verbal praise, smile, touch) can foster the learning of certain tasks. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 96 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Teacher--child relationships are significant factors in school success. A sample of kindergarten through eighth-grade children who had negative relations with teachers early on, marked by conflict and dependency, had poor academic and behavioral outcomes (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Teachers as Role Models How does the teacher's behavior enable student learning? Teachers' impact on socialization and success in motivating student learning is explained by the classic research of Bandura and Walters (1963) on modeling, mentioned earlier: "Models who are rewarding, prestigious or competent, who possess high status, and who have control over rewarding resources are more readily imitated than are models who lack these qualities" (p. 107). Students who model their teachers pick up subtle behaviors and attitudes about learning. It follows, then, that the most important influence on students' achievement is the competent teacher. More specifically, a competent teacher is one who is committed to work, is an effective classroom manager, is a positive role model with whom students can identify, is enthusiastic and warm, continues efforts for self-improvement in teaching, possesses skill in human relationships, and can adapt his or her skills to a specific context (Good & Brophy, 2007). Mr. Brown was a model (in more than one sense), able to engage a diverse classroom of students. Mr. Kane was authoritarian; it was his way or no way. Teachers direct, guide, and set an example for students---they are leaders. Teachers use different styles of leadership to accomplish their goals. To illustrate, a classic study done by Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) compared the effects of three leadership styles---authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire (a policy of letting people do as they please; permissive)---on three groups of 10-year-old boys. The boys were assigned randomly to one of three after-school recreational groups engaged in craft activities. The groups were led by three adults who behaved in different ways. In the authoritarian situation, the leader determined the group's policy, gave step-by-step directions, dictated each boy's particular task, assigned children to work with one another, was subjective in his praise of the children's work, and stayed aloof from group participation. In the democratic situation, the leader allowed the boys to participate in setting group policy, gave the boys a general idea of the steps involved in the project, suggested alternative procedures, allowed them to work with whomever they wished, evaluated them in a fair and objective manner, and tried to be a member of the group. In the laissez-faire situation, the leader gave the group complete freedom to do as they wished, supplied material or information only when asked, and refrained almost completely from commenting on the boys' work. The style of leadership was shown to have a definite effect on the interactions within each group. The boys in the authoritarian situation showed significantly more aggression toward one another and were far more discontented than the boys in the LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 97 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola democratic condition. They also produced more work than the other two groups. The boys in the democratic group showed less hostility, more enjoyment, and continued to work even when the leader left the room, which was not true of the other two groups. Finally, the laissez-faire group accomplished relatively little; the boys were frequently bored and spent much time "fooling around." (See Figure 7.2.) Do teachers' leadership styles influence the learning environment in the classroom? In several studies, Good and Brophy (2007) report that a teacher who is clearly the leader and authority and who directs the class toward specific goals (direct instruction) promotes achievement. In this learning environment, little emphasis is placed on discussion, student ideas, discovery learning, or other types of indirect instruction. Jonathan Kozol, in Savage Inequalities (1991), disagrees. He describes the plight of poor inner-city children trying to learn from teachers who can't relate to their students' experiences in overcrowded schools with dilapidated equipment. Herbert Kohl, in his classic book 36 Children (1967), describes the remarkable progress in language and thinking abilities made by the children in his class when he brought books, art, and play materials to class and allowed the children to explore them freely and make discoveries. Kohl acted as a facilitator, a helper in the acquisition of knowledge, and in so doing, allowed the children to participate in their own learning. Kohl (1984) believes children learn best from teachers who are role models, who love learning. Still another way of viewing the teacher's role as a leader is that of a mentor who guides participation (Rogoff, 2003). For example, when a teacher shows a child how to be more successful at doing math problems (addition, subtraction) by putting LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 98 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola the numbers in boxes on graph paper, the teacher is not only guiding the child's participation but also providing support for success from one level to the next. Thus, teachers facilitate children's capacities to reach their full potential. Lev Vygotsky (1978) called the space between what a learner can do independently and what he or she can do while participating with more capable others the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The effective teacher is one who is sensitive to the student's zone of development and provides appropriate independent, as well as collaborative, activities to enhance learning. Teachers as Managers What does a teacher's managing ability have to do with a student's learning ability? Mr. Brown's teaching style motivated me---he actually was the person who encouraged me to write. In contrast, Mr. Kane squashed my desire to continue learning science. Kounin (1970) studied classroom management techniques and consequent student learning. His classic research showed that the key to successful management lay in preventive, rather than consequential, measures. The differences between successful and unsuccessful classroom managers lay in the planning and preparation of instruction, so that inattention and boredom were prevented. Kounin found that student inattentiveness and misbehavior were often linked to problems of discontinuity in a lesson, which in turn were linked to inadequate preparation by the teacher. For example, a teacher who is giving instructions on how to do a book report and stops to find some appropriate books in the closet is likely to have lost the students' attention by the time the books are located. On the other hand, if a teacher has the exemplary books displayed on a table while the book report instructions are being given, it is likely that inattentiveness will be prevented. Did you ever have teachers who had "eyes in the back of their heads"? Such teachers seem to know what their students are doing without looking and therefore are quick to react to potential problems. Kounin refers to this type of teacher behavior as "with-it-ness." Teachers who are "with it" respond immediately to incidents rather than waiting, quash minor problems before they turn into major ones, do not overreact to incidents, and focus accurately on the individuals involved in the incident rather than blaming someone wrongly. When students realize that the teacher knows what is going on, they are less likely to become involved in unproductive behavior. Well-managed classrooms appear to run by themselves, with the teacher spending most of the time teaching rather than dealing with behavior problems. During a review of videotapes of their classes, teachers who were effective managers often referred to the preventive and anticipatory measures they had taken to avoid classroom problems---for example, encouraging student self-regulation (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Another characteristic of successful classroom managers is the ability to "overlap"---that is, to deal with more than one activity at the same time (Good & LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 99 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Brophy, 2007). For example, while working with a group of students in one corner of the room, a teacher provides an appropriate motivating statement to a child who is wandering about, not involved in an activity ("Nadia, I'd like to read the paragraph you wrote so we can think of another one"). Also, transitions from one activity to the next are smooth, not disruptive: "When you complete the chapter, you may work on the computer"; rather than "All books away; it is time for your test now." Teachers' Expectations Do teachers' expectations affect the achievement and behavior of students? Mr. Kane believed science was for boys, homemaking for girls. This was a powerful "downer" for me, because I had thought of becoming a doctor. Since achievement was not expected from the girls in Mr. Kane's class, it did not occur. To document the significance of expectations, Rosenthal and Jacobson, in their book Pygmalion in the Classroom (1968), described a classic experiment in which they had all the teachers in an elementary school give a test to their students that was designed to identify intellectual "bloomers" (those who would show an academic spurt during the year). Actually, the test was a nonverbal IQ test and, unknown to the teachers, did not predict future intellectual spurts. After the test, however, the researchers provided the teachers with a list of bloomers. The bloomer list was not based on the test; instead, it was a random list of names from the teachers' rolls. Eight months later, all the children were retested with the same IQ test. The designated "bloomers" did, in fact, demonstrate significant intellectual growth; those in the first and second grades showed the most growth. This study raised the question, Are teachers trapped by their self-fulfilling prophecies for their students? Rosenthal and Jacobson's study generated a lot of controversy because of methodological weaknesses and the inability of others to replicate the original results. Brophy and Good (1986) pointed out that attempting to induce teacher expectations by providing phony information generally has not shown results. However, studies observing actual teacher behavior in the classroom have shown the effects of expectancy (Sadker & Sadker, 2003). For example, in a longitudinal study of more than 1,500 middle school students whose teachers predicted their performance in math, there was a greater impact on future math achievement for low achievers, whose performance was overestimated, than for high achievers, whose performance was underestimated (Madon, Jussim, & Eccles, 1997). These findings demonstrate the power of "living up to expectation." Brophy and Good explain the real-world effect of teacher expectations as follows: Teachers usually receive data about students at the beginning of the school year (test scores, past grades, family and health information, comments by previous teachers), which influence their expectations of students for achievement and behavior. Because of these expectations, the teacher tends to treat students differently. Students then react to the teacher differently. The students' behavior and achievement reinforce the teacher's expectations. Gradually, the students' self- LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 100 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola concepts, motivation, and levels of aspiration reflect these expectations. If continued throughout the year, the students' performances will match or fulfill what the teacher expected or prophesied at the beginning of the year. In addition to students' past records of achievement and behavior, teachers' expectations can be influenced by certain student characteristics, such as socioeconomic class, cultural background, gender, personality, physical attractiveness, speech characteristics, and handwriting (Brophy & Good, 1986; Good & Brophy, 2007; Proctor, 1984). Mrs. Levins has a child named Roy in her third-grade class who has moved several times and has below-normal achievement scores recorded in his cumulative folder. As Mrs. Levins reviews the folders belonging to the other children in her class, she finds three children (Sarah, Andrew, and Cary) who have consistently scored well above normal on achievement tests and whose folders also contain notes from previous teachers about what a joy each one was to teach. Upon observing Mrs. Levins midyear, we find that she waits less time for Roy to answer her questions than she does for Sarah, Andrew, or Cary. We also find that she is more critical of Roy than she is of the others and demands less of him in terms of work. Of course, not all teachers translate their expectations into the type of behavior described in the example. Some teachers do not form expectations that continue throughout the year; rather, they change their expectations on the basis of the students' performance. Teacher expectations about students do not have a direct impact on student behavior; it is only when these expectations are communicated to the students, and selective reinforcement results in shaping their behavior, that teacher expectations have an impact. By becoming aware of possible biases in their behavior caused by their expectations, teachers can make a conscious effort to interact objectively with each child. Student Characteristics and Teacher Interaction Which students turn teachers on to teaching? Which ones turn them off? Students who are engaged, interested in what I have to say, and willing to participate in class turn me on; I feel myself becoming more animated and willing to delve into topics of interest. Students who doze, who come in late or leave early, who won't participate no matter what, turn me off; I find myself struggling to make the material more interesting and becoming exhausted in the process. Teacher--student interaction is bidirectional, with teachers eliciting responses in students and students, through their behavioral, cognitive, and affective qualities, eliciting responses in teachers (Bloom, 1982). According to Lillian Katz (1984), teacher--student interaction is specific and limited in that it relates to school matters. The intensity of affect between teacher and student is supposed to be low and somewhat detached, because teachers cannot get too emotionally involved with their students; otherwise they would lose objectivity (in their ability to evaluate, for example). Teachers must maintain rationality and intentionality in their curriculum LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 101 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola goals. They must exhibit impartiality toward individual students, as their scope of responsibility is toward the whole group. Teaching a group of students from diverse backgrounds is a big challenge, especially when the group is large. The bidirectional relationship of teacher and student, which in turn affects socialization, is a complex dynamic reflecting factors such as gender, cultural background, socioeconomic status, learning styles, and disability. Gender Do teachers treat boys and girls differently? Research shows that teacher--student interaction differs according to the gender of the student (the gender of the teacher does not seem to matter), though even when confronted with documentation (such as video recording), most teachers are unaware of inequities (Sadker & Sadker, 2003). Studies consistently show that boys have more interactions with teachers than do girls (Streitmatter, 1994; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). Teachers are more responsive to the disruptive behavior of boys than of girls and are more likely to reprimand boys (Serbin, O'Leary, Kent, & Tonick, 1973). When children request attention, teachers generally respond to boys with instructions and to girls with nurture. In addition, girls receive more attention when they are close to the teacher, whereas boys are given attention from a distance. Studies also show that the feedback received by boys and girls on the intellectual quality of their work differs: boys receive considerable criticism for failing to obey the rules, whereas girls receive criticism related to their performance; and boys attribute their failure to do well to lack of effort, whereas girls attribute their failure to do well to lack of ability (Dweck, Davidson, Nelson, & Enna, 1978). Do some girls, then, give up trying to be successful when they reach high school because of the responses their elementary teachers have given them? Why do girls perform better academically than boys in elementary school, but falter in high school? For example, girls do not do as well as boys in science and math by the time they reach adolescence (American Association of University Women \[AAUW\], 1991; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). There is evidence that girls generally take fewer advanced math classes than do boys in high school and college (AAUW, 1991; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; 2003). Even though Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act of 1972 obliged schools to provide equal treatment for males and females, schools are still shortchanging girls (AAUW, 1991). Although more girls are involved in athletics (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996), the contributions and experiences of girls and women are not as visible in textbooks as are those of boys and men. The change is slow in gender-segregated enrollment patterns in vocational education (girls are primarily enrolled in office and business-training programs, whereas boys are in programs leading to higher-paying trade jobs). LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 102 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola How can teachers be more equitable? Teachers must be trained to foster assertive and affiliative skills in both girls and boys. School curricula and textbooks should be monitored for gender stereotypes and should provide positive role models for both girls and boys. Culture Do teachers engage in cultural stereotyping? Cultural background is a factor in teacher--student interaction in that both teacher and student come to the relationship with certain socialization experiences influencing their values, morals, attitudes, motives, behaviors, and roles. We focus on the impact of such diverse socialization on teacher--student interaction. Diverse socialization yields diverse perspectives on what to learn, how to learn it, and how to show it has been learned. The role of teacher and school is to implement the values and traditions of society and so take on the responsibility of acculturation. The United States is composed of many diverse cultural groups. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2007), the majority of individuals in the United States classify themselves as non-Hispanic white, but numerous minority groups include those of Latino origin, African American origin, Native American/ Alaskan origin, Asian--Pacific Island origin, and others. Americans speak many languages. More than 32 million speak a language other than English at home; the largest language groups are Spanish, French, German, Chinese, and Italian (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2003). Projections of population growth to the year 2020, based on life expectancies, fertility rates, and immigration, suggest that the gap between majority and minority cultural groups is narrowing. This trend, plus the movement toward a global economy, points to the importance of understanding cultural diversity. Examples of possible misunderstandings follow. What can teachers do to be equitable regarding diverse groups? Respect for cultural, as well as religious, differences requires teachers to be sensitive to a variety of customs. Asking appropriate questions and listening carefully can help avoid misunderstandings. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has taken the following position: For optimal developmental and learning of all children, educators must accept the legitimacy of children's home language, respect (hold in high regard) and value (esteem, appreciate) the home culture and promote and encourage the active involvement and support of all families, including extended and nontraditional family units. (NAEYC, 1996a, p. 5) Teacher sensitivity can be used to enable children to be tolerant and respectful of differences. When a kindergarten boy from India was called "garbage head" by his classmates because his hair smelled of coconut oil, the teacher planned a series of activities in which she and the children compared coconut oil to a variety of shampoos, conditioners, mousses, and gels. After much discussion about all the LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 103 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola different things people put on their hair, the children came to realize that everyone's hair has a particular smell and coconut was simply one of a vast array (Ramsey, 2004). Understanding diversity in microcultures, or minority groups, involves examining the macroculture, or majority group. Historically, political and social institutions in the United States developed from a Western European tradition. The English language came from England, and the American legal system is derived from English common law. The American political system of democratic elections comes from England and France (Gollnick & Chinn, 2005). American formal institutions (representing the macroculture), such as government, schools, business, and health and welfare agencies, reflect white European Protestant influences often referred to as the Protestant ethic. What are some generalized values of the macroculture? Although the macroculture includes people who are not white, of European descent, or Protestant, certain basic values are shared to some degree by all members of the macroculture. Generally, the American macroculture is characterized by the following (Arensberg & Niehoff, 1975; Stewart & Bennett, 1991; Williams, 1960): Emphasis on active mastery rather than passive acceptance---individuals are responsible for what happens to them. Valuation of the work ethic---industriousness, ambition, competitiveness, individualism, independence. Achieved status---based on occupation, education, and financial worth, rather than inheritance. Stress on assertiveness rather than humility. Valuation of fairness---equal opportunities in social, political, and economic institutions rather than hierarchal privileges. More interest in the external world of things and events than the internal world of meaning and feeling---achievement and success are measured by the quality of material goods purchased. Emphasis on change, flow, movement---new and modern are better than old and traditional; emphasis is on future rather than past or present. Belief in rationalism rather than traditionalism---not accepting things just because they have been done before; there has to be a logical reason for doing something. Emphasis on peer relationships rather than superordinate--subordinate; advocates equality, or horizontal relationships, rather than hierarchy, or vertical relationships. Focus on individual personality (individualism, independence) rather than group identity and responsibility (collectivism, interdependence)---idealizes an adaptive and outgoing personality rather than a conventional, introverted one. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 104 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Objective, impersonal relationships to others tend to the norm rather than subjective, personal ones; communication is direct or confrontational. Principles of right and wrong characterize personal life and community affairs, rather than shame, dishonor, or ridicule. How are these values exemplified in young children's behavior? Most children in the United States learn that nature is something you conquer and exploit. In the sandbox they often "build roads" or "dig to the other side of the world" (Ramsey, 2004). Children are also encouraged to be actively engaged rather than "bored," as evidenced by the quantity of toys parents bring on long car rides. What are some generalized values of the microculture? The degree to which individual U.S. citizens subscribe to the general values of the macroculture depends, in part, on the values of the microculture, or minority group, to which they belong. The degree may also depend on how much an individual must interact with formal societal institutions for support (Gollnick & Chinn, 2005). For example, one who receives a government loan to further his or her education must comply with regulations by proving attendance at a college or university and following the prescribed schedule for repayment. To better understand possible areas of differences between macroculture (mainly individualistic) and microculture (mainly collectivistic) values in school, some generalities about microcultures follow. Orientation toward the extended family---the child is considered an important member of the family group; the family provides a psychological support system throughout the individual's life. Cousins are considered as close as brothers. Emphasis is placed on cooperation, helping those in need, and respect for elders. Family matters may take precedence over school attendance. Fostering of sharing and group ownership---to a child who has not been socialized to understand individual ownership ("These are your crayons"), your may mean belonging to the group. Thus, if Lee cannot find his pencil, he borrows Steve's without asking because whatever belongs to the group the child regards as his or hers, too. Humility---children are socialized not to "show up" (demonstrate individual superiority over) their peers. Children from collectivistic cultures may not exhibit competitive behaviors in classroom settings, such as responding to "Who has the best work?" However, when performance is socially defined as benefiting the peer society ("Which group has read the most books?"), children from collectivistic cultures compete well. Learning occurs by observation and being patient---at home, children from collectivistic cultures may not be rewarded for curiosity and for asking questions; parents may even use legends and fables to discourage curiosity. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 105 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Respect and compliance shown by no eye contact rather than by looking directly at an adult, as is expected in the macroculture. Ascribed status---more characteristic of collectivistic cultures where status is based more on who you are (family name) than what you have achieved. Present-time orientation---more common than future-time orientation. Time is viewed as a continuum, with no beginning and no end. Ceremonies, for example, begin when the participants are ready, rather than punctually at the scheduled time How do individualistic and collectivistic orientations affect socialization? Until recently, most of the research on child development has been carried out in the context of the dominant macroculture, which has an individualistic orientation. Consequently, the development of children from European American, middle-class families has come to be considered the norm for all children regardless of the cultural or economic context they inhabit (Bennett, 2003). Thus, to get a broad perspective on child development and to foster understanding of culturally diverse children, the socialization backgrounds of collectivistic cultures will be compared to those of individualistic cultures. The following discussion comprises generalizations from research. The continuum of individualism/collectivism represents the degree to which a culture emphasizes individual fulfillment and choice versus interdependent relations, social responsibility, and the well-being of the group. Individualism makes the former a priority, collectivism, the latter. (Trumbull et al., 2001, p. 4) Generally, the school is oriented toward the European American value and tradition of individualism, whereas most minority ethnic groups are oriented toward that of collectivism. To enable teachers to meet the challenges of education in a pluralistic society, Trumbull and colleagues (2001) describe how the individualistic-- collectivistic continuum approach to different cultures can be applied in the classroom. They give the following example of an individualistic and a collectivistic response to the same situation (p. 6): At the end of the school day, when it is time to clean up, Salvador isn't feeling well. He asks his friend, Emanuel, to help him do his assigned job for the day, cleaning the blackboard. Emanuel isn't sure he'll have time to do his job and help Salvador. Individualistic response: The teacher gets a third person to do Salvador's job, as Emanuel has his own responsibility. Collectivistic response: The teacher tells Emanuel to help Salvador with his job. Socialization Contrasts between Home and Classroom and Equitable Teaching Objects/People. Children socialized in individualistic cultures generally learn about physical objects as a means toward independence. Parents give children toys and teach them how to use various materials so they can amuse and help themselves. Parents use direct oral language to communicate instructions. Children socialized in LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 106 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola collectivistic cultures generally are amused and helped by other people. Holding, touching, and modeling how to carry out a task tend to be the dominant form of communication. In school, where verbal instructions are often given, children who are not accustomed to that manner of learning may have difficulty. Demonstrating and working alongside the student may be more helpful. Possessions. In collectivistic cultures, the emphasis on social relationships and getting along extends to possessions. Personal items, such as clothing, books, and toys, are often considered family property and are readily shared. In individualistic cultures, emphasis generally is on having and taking care of your own things---"that's mine!" is often heard. In school, where much emphasis is placed on producing one's own work and keeping one's things tidy in one's desk, children who are used to communal tasks and property may have difficulty adjusting. Teachers might incorporate cooperative activities in the classroom to allow such children an opportunity to contribute. Achievement. Individualistic cultures tend to stress individual achievement and competition: "Who read the most books?" Related is the sense of self-expression and personal choice: "Who knows the answer?" "Which club do you want to join?" Collectivistic cultures tend to stress group affiliation and cooperation: "How is your friend feeling today?" "Let's let him hold your teddy bear." Related is the belief in the need for group harmony and saving face: "We need to help Maria with her math so she won't be embarrassed in class." Teachers might be cognizant of their use of praise for a child in front of the group. Although this is thought to reinforce desired achievement and competition and to foster self-esteem, it may have the opposite effect on children who interpret it as upsetting group harmony and causing embarrassment. Social Roles. Children socialized in collectivistic cultures are generally taught to respect a hierarchy of authority roles, with grandparents, parents, teachers, and other adults possessing knowledge and being worthy of respect. Thus, they may not be very responsive if a teacher asks their opinion (their status in the age hierarchy implies they do not know enough to have one) or inquires whether they have questions (indicating that the material the teacher taught was not understood may be considered disrespectful). Children socialized in individualistic cultures are generally taught egalitarian principles in social roles; everyone has certain rights that must be respected, such as the right to voice an opinion. Collectivistic cultures usually have more rigid gender roles than do individualistic cultures. When I taught preschool, some little girls would always arrive clothed in pretty dresses, in spite of the suggestion to all parents that their children wear clothes suitable for climbing on the outdoor equipment and easily washable. Teachers might structure some learning activities using group structures and group leaders. Children in the group help each other and ask pertinent questions via the group leader, who serves as mediator LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 107 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola between the group and the teacher. As the children become more competent with various school subjects, they can experience being a group leader. Socioeconomic Status Do all children have an equal opportunity to succeed in school? It has been well documented that family socioeconomic status affects school readiness and later academic achievement (Duncan & Magnuson, 2005; McLoyd, 1998). "Since the term 'socioeconomic status' (SES) refers to one's social position as well as to the privileges and prestige that derive from access to economic and social resources,... it may be difficult to measure directly a family's access to resources or its position in a social hierarchy" (Duncan & Magnuson, 2005, p. 2). Therefore, researchers typically use one SES indicator, such as occupation, or combine several indicators, such as occupation, income, and parental education, into scales that reflect families' relative positions in a social hierarchy. To understand the relationship between families' disparate socioeconomic circumstances and children's achievement, Duncan and Magnuson (2005) examined four components of SES: income, education, family structure, and neighborhood. · Income. Children from birth to age 5 whose families' incomes were below the poverty line were found to score lower on a standardized test than children from families with average incomes. This is most likely due to the more stimulating learning environment of books, newspapers, educational games, and activities available in families able to afford such things. Education. Children whose parents finished high school and had some college education routinely score higher on cognitive and academic tests than do children of parents with less education. Despite the heterogeneity of children in all social classes, teachers often stereotype children's potential based on their socioeconomic status and base expectations for achievement accordingly (Ramsey, 2004). Family structure. Single-parent families are likely to have fewer resources than dual-parent families. Young children living with single mothers are more likely to be poor (FIFCFS, 2007). Financial and time constraints may limit a single parent's ability to supervise and discipline children and to provide a supportive and stimulating environment. On average, children raised by single parents have lower social and academic well-being than do children of intact marriages (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). Part of the explanation is economic insecurity in young or single-parent families. Another part is parental conflict and strain in divorcing families. Finally, the many transitions experienced by children in young and single-parent families may result in feelings of instability. Neighborhood. Children growing up in high-poverty urban communities plagued by violence, gangs, drug activity, old housing, and vacant buildings may experience stress, a lack of positive role models, a lack of institutional LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 108 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola resources (school, protective services), and negative peer influences (Duncan & Magnuson, 2005). In sum, the lack of preparedness for school of children from low-SES families affects the teacher--student relationship. Low-SES families tend not to have physical or emotional resources for educational support. Many home experiences taken for granted in middle-class families, such as books, computers, and trips, are unavailable in poor families. Because low SES can be a self-perpetuating cycle, poor parents themselves may not have received an adequate education growing up and, therefore, may lack knowledge of readiness and supportive educational activities to provide for their child, such as language stimulation, reading, and games. The differential treatment of groups of people because of their class background, and the reinforcement of those differences through values and practices of societal institutions such as schools, is known as classism. As has been discussed, socioeconomic class is based on income, educational attainment, occupation, and power. Where a family falls on the continuum from poor to rich affects the manner in which its members live, how they think and act, and the way that others react to them (Gollnick & Chinn, 2005). What are the consequences of classism? Dealing with life's inevitable inconveniences is dependent on class. For example, if your car breaks down, do you bring it to a service station for repairs, rent a car, and go about your business? Or do you ask a relative or friend to help you fix it while you depend on others and public transportation to take you where you need to go? When you get sick, do you go to a doctor knowing that whatever the treatment, it will be covered by your insurance? Or do you go to bed and try to heal yourself ? Likewise, in the classroom children who have access to books, computers, and trips can navigate more successfully through school projects than those who have few resources at home. The consequences of classism in school are subtle, but significant. One consequence is that students of lower socioeconomic status are more likely to be assigned to low ability groups in their early years, setting them on a track that is difficult to alter (Gollnick & Chinn, 2005; Levine & Levine, 1996). Another consequence is segregation of peer groups along socioeconomic lines, especially in middle or junior high school (Davidson & Schniedewind, 1992). What possessions students have, what neighborhoods they live in, what clothing they wear, the language and vocabulary they use can all interfere with positive social interaction, thereby reinforcing inequality in society. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 109 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Learning Styles How do you learn best? Children have different ways they learn best, and teachers have different ways they teach best. When I was in school, I liked listening to interesting lectures. I liked organization and analysis. When I had difficulty, I appreciated help from a neighboring student. I disliked being put into groups and given a task. I hated laboratory assignments. My daughter, on the other hand, loved working in groups and hated analytical tasks. She also liked writing creative stories. She was not too fond of lab work, either. I liked teachers who were structured and followed a plan; my daughter liked teachers who were innovative in their approaches to curriculum. Student learning style and teacher teaching style can be viewed as bidirectional, with one influencing the other. Some children learn more effectively by observation, modeling, and apprenticeship rather than through verbal instruction, the teaching method most commonly used in American schools. To illustrate, Joan tells how she learned to prepare salmon as a child. After watching her mother, she was allowed to gradually take on portions of the task and to ask questions only if they were important. Once she told her mother that she didn't understand how to do "the backbone part." So her mother took an entire fish and repeated the deboning because, according to her, it is not possible to understand "the backbone part" except in the context of the whole fish. Researchers (Hilliard, 1992; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1974; Tharp, 1989) suggest that children develop learning or cognitive styles based on the socialization they receive in their families and peer groups---although there are still many unanswered questions about cognitive styles. Children who live in families that are structured---members have defined roles, specific times are set aside for eating and sleeping, the family uses formal styles of group organization (relating to a leader, pursuing goals, receiving feedback)---have been observed to have an analytical cognitive style. Children who live in families that are less structured---roles are shared, individuals eat when hungry and sleep when tired---are more likely to exhibit a relational cognitive style. What is the relationship between cognitive style and socialization in families? Orientation toward persons/objects. Children from collectively oriented families tend to be more oriented toward feelings and personal interaction, and are more proficient at nonverbal communication, than are children from individually oriented families (Bennett, 2003; Hale-Benson, 1986). This is because children from collectively oriented families generally get a lot of experience interacting with people (HaleBenson, 1986). Communication in these interactions may differ from that experienced by children from individually oriented families. In a collectively oriented conversation, talking may traverse from topic to topic rather than following a linear sequence from the beginning of the story to the end as occurs in an individually LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 110 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola oriented conversation (Ramsey, 2004). Children from individually oriented families generally learn to focus on objects; they usually have numerous opportunities to manipulate things and discover properties and relationships. These experiences with objects help prepare them for school, which is also object-oriented, using books, computers, learning centers, and so on. Field dependence/independence. Some children exhibit a holistic, concrete, social approach to learning (Bennett, 2003; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1974). This style of learning, referred to as field-dependent, usually implies that the person works well in groups and perceives things in terms of the whole context. A field-independent learning style, on the other hand, describes an analytic and logical approach to tasks and usually implies that the person relates well to impersonal, abstract information, independent of the context. Children who tend to be more field-dependent likely were socialized to be open, warm, committed to mutual dependence, cooperative, sensitive to the feelings of others, and respectful of adults and social convention (Escobedo & Huggans, 1983; Greenfield, Suzuki, & Rothstein-Fisch, 2006; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1974; Soldier, 1985). Demonstration is a socialization method related to the field-dependent learning style, with its intended outcome being visualization (Bennett, 2003). Adults demonstrate how to perform a task correctly, expecting the child to eventually master it internally (by visualization); guidance is gentle and supportive. Disapproval is indirectly communicated via silence or shame (Shibusawa, 2001). Children also learn through careful observation, noticing, for example, the behavior and expressions of adults, the changing weather conditions, the terrain, and so on. After observing an adult do a task, the child takes over small portions of the task under the guidance of the adult; the child becomes an apprentice. When the child feels ready to do the whole task, he or she practices it in private. Thus, failures are not seen and don't cause embarrassment, but success is demonstrated for the adult with pride (Vasquez, 1990). In contrast, direct verbal communication of instructions and standards, feedback, external rewards, and punishment are socialization methods related to the field-independent learning style. Values for learning. Families that value effort and hard work as well as the importance of group identity (in that one's performance reflects upon the family or teacher) socialize children to be top performers on achievement tests (Stevenson & Lee, 1990; Stevenson, Stigler, Lee, Kitamura, & Kato, 1986). Families that value hierarchical roles socialize children to view the teacher as the complete source of knowledge. These children may be less inclined to participate in class discussions or share ideas, and may be reluctant to work with other students on group projects. They have been taught that the student's job is to listen, take notes, memorize, follow directions, and recite. In their families, children's ideas are not requested, nor are they valued. They are taught not to ask questions, argue, or challenge the teacher (Dresser, 2005). LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 111 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Because all children learn differently, Howard Gardner (1999) recommends that teachers adapt the curriculum to the following multiple intelligences he believes encompass human capability (see Figure 7.3): 1. Logical-mathematical: skills related to solving logical problems and performing mathematical calculations (generally qualities of scientists, mathematicians) 2. Linguistic: skills related to the meaning, sound, and rhythm of words as well as the use of language (generally qualities of authors, journalists, poets) 3. Bodily-kinesthetic: ability to coordinate parts of the body and manipulate objects skillfully (generally qualities of athletes, dancers, surgeons) 4. Musical: ability to produce pitch and rhythm and appreciate musical expression (generally qualities of musicians, composers, singers) 5. Spatial: ability to form a mental model of concrete objects and manipulate parts in relation to each other (generally qualities of architects, engineers, artists) 6. Interpersonal: ability to analyze and respond to behavior, feelings, and motives of other people (generally qualities of psychologists, teachers, salespeople) 7. Intrapersonal: ability to understand one's feelings and motives, using such knowledge to adapt one's behavior accordingly (generally qualities of actors, lawyers) 8. Naturalist: ability to discriminate among living things and be sensitive to the natural environment (generally qualities of botanists, zoologists, ecologists) Risk and Resilience Why are some children at risk for psychological, social, or academic problems, whereas other children with similar characteristics are resilient? Risk refers to endangerment; vulnerability to negative developmental outcomes. Children at risk are more likely to drop out of school, abuse substances, engage in violent behavior, become pregnant, be unemployed, and commit suicide. Risk factors affecting infants and children can be classified as genetic (such as mental retardation), prenatal (such as drug exposure), perinatal (such as health care), and environmental (such as poverty) (Rickel & Becker, 1997). Children considered to be at risk tend to come from families that lack social support networks, experience unemployment, exhibit depression, engage in substance abuse, have poor marital relations, and/or practice domestic abuse (Walsh, 2006). Resilience refers to the ability to withstand and rebound from crisis or persistent challenges. Resilient children are more likely to have close friends, be in families with supportive marriages, attain a high level of education, and master vocational skills, despite growing up in a difficult or traumatic environment (Garbarino, 1995a; Rickel & Becker, 1997; Walsh, 2006). For example, psychologist Emmy Werner (1993) began studying infants at risk in Hawaii more than 40 years ago. The children came from families who were chronically poor, alcoholic, and LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 112 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola abusive. Expecting negative developmental outcomes for the children, she was surprised to find that approximately onethird of those she followed grew into emotionally healthy, competent adults. What enabled these children to become resilient to a traumatic childhood? The resilient children had a sense of autonomy and personal responsibility; they related to others positively; perhaps most significantly, they had established a bond with an adult caregiver or mentor. Apparently, the "substitute" parent and positive relationships and experiences act as buffers against negative developmental outcomes. These buffers make a more profound impact on the life course of children who grow up under adverse conditions than do specific risk factors or stressful life events. They appear to transcend ethnic, social class, geographical, and historical boundaries. Most of all, they offer us a more optimistic outlook than the perspective that can be gleaned from the literature on the negative consequences of perinatal trauma, caregiving deficits, and chronic poverty. They provide us with a corrective lens---an awareness of self-righting tendencies that move children toward normal adult development under all but the most persistent adverse circumstances. (Werner & Smith, 1992) The implications of such research are profound. The findings mean that parents, schools, community services, and others can help children develop into healthy, contributing adults by working together to build a socially nourishing environment (Comer, 2004; Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Garbarino, 1995a). According to James Comer (2004, p. xiv), "it is in our social environment that constructive attitudes, values, and ways of living---work, family relationships, child rearing, citizen contribution are created and perpetuated... or they are not." Schools have the potential to provide optimal socialization experiences and foster resiliency in children. In his book Leave No Child Behind, Comer (2004) describes the success of one model. The Comer model, implemented in hundreds of schools all over the United States, is based on the principle that good relationships promote healthy development, which is inextricably linked to learning. Schools using the Comer model are an extension of the family, and the family is a reflection of the learning environment fostered by the school. Others agree that the school must work with families as well as children, and this has been documented by much research (Connors & Epstein, 1995; Funkhouser & Gonzales, 1997). Specifically, when families get involved in school, their children: Get better grades and test scores. Graduate from high school at higher rates. Are more likely to go on to higher education. Behave more positively. Are more achievement-oriented. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 113 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Poor Children at Risk What aspects of poverty put children at risk? Poverty puts children at risk for negative developmental outcomes. According to the FIFCFS (2007), 18 percent of children 0 to 17 years old were classified by federal income standards as "poor." Poor families face many challenges besides their standard of living. Some of these include having both parents working outside the home, reliance on child care, inadequate health care, malnutrition, lack of adequate housing, and unsafe communities. In his book Savage Inequalities, Jonathan Kozol (1991) describes many poor neighborhoods and schools as being near chemical plants or sewage dumps, in ill repair, and plagued by crime and drugs. The community's failure to support the school---because of economics and values---affects the teacher--student relationship. Teachers have to motivate students to achieve in the face of learned helplessness---the perception, acquired through negative experiences, that effort has no effect on outcomes. The difficulty comes from the belief, common in poor families, that there is little connection between educational achievement and making a living (Levine & Levine, 1996). Thus, delinquency and dropping out present additional challenges to teachers. Poverty is a societal problem that must be addressed by macrosystems (political ideology, economics), exosystems (business, community services), and mesosystems (linkages), as well as the microsystems of school and family. An example of mesosystems supporting education comes from a study on what makes adolescents feel connected to schools (McNeely, Nonnemaker, & Blum, 2002). The researchers found students' connections with their schools to be associated with: School size. The smaller the school (down to 600 pupils), the more connected students felt. Discipline policies. Harsh discipline, such as zero tolerance, made students feel less connected, though safer. Student friendships. Adolescents are more connected to school when they have more friends there because they are less socially isolated. Children and Substance Abuse How does substance abuse in the family affect the child in school? The teacher--student relationship is affected by the child's exposure to the use/abuse of substances by family members. Substance abuse has been consistently linked with poor parenting and poor family functioning; addicted parents' primary relationship is with drugs, not with their children (Thompson, 1998). Prenatal Substance Exposure. One group of children from at-risk families are those prenatally exposed to drugs or alcohol. (Postnatal exposure poses risks, too, as exemplified in the next section on alcohol.) Commonly abused drugs include crack cocaine, heroin, marijuana, tranquilizers, and stimulants. Substance-exposed infants LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 114 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola exhibit low birth weight, sleeping and eating disorders, and increased irritability (Hardman et al., 1999). They experience not only physical and health problems but psychological and behavioral ones as well. The following is an example (Green, 1990). Five-year-old Jeffrey's foster parents are at their wits' end. Jeffrey has just hit the neighbor's cat with a golf club. Fortunately, the cat was quick to move, so only its tail got the brunt of the blow. Jeffrey is in perpetual motion most of his waking hours. He even has a hard time sitting still while eating or in front of the TV. Suddenly, he may burst into tears, or laughter, or trance-like states that can last an hour or more. Jeffrey is a victim of his mother's addiction to crack cocaine, which she smoked during her pregnancy. Why the concern with such children? Besides medical and social service costs, there are educational costs as well. The cost of special education and related services can be two or three times the amount (depending on the disability) spent on a child in a regular program at a public school, which averages about \$7,500 per year nationally. Children exposed to drugs prenatally often: Exhibit impulsiveness and moodiness, as a result of altered neurotransmitters in the brain (Toufexis, 1991). Exhibit antisocial behavior due to the effects of the drugs on the developing brain in utero; cocaine causes blood vessels to constrict, thereby reducing the vital flow of oxygen and other nutrients to the brain as well as to other organs. As infants, respond differently to natural adult overtures such as cooing, tickling, and bouncing; whereas normal babies gurgle and laugh, babies prenatally exposed to drugs stiffen or scream (Toufexis, 1991; Tyler, 1992). As preschoolers and school-agers, don't relate appropriately to other children or adults. They tend to ignore rules, have temper outbursts, be aggressive, and be unable to concentrate (Green, 1990; Hardman et al., 1999). Thus, they have special socialization needs, and their caregivers need to learn techniques to optimize their development. Alcohol. Another group of children at risk for negative developmental outcomes are those whose parents abuse alcohol. According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP, 2002d), one in five adult Americans lived with an alcoholic while growing up. Alcoholism is a chronic, progressive, and potentially fatal disease. It is characterized by excessive tolerance for alcohol and by physical dependency and/or pathologic organ changes as direct or indirect consequences of the alcohol ingested. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can produce abnormalities in the developing fetus. Alcohol interferes with the delivery of nutrients to the fetus, impairs the supply of fetal oxygen, and interferes with protein synthesis (AACAP, 2006d). A specific cluster of abnormalities appearing in babies exposed prenatally to alcohol abuse (heavy drinking) was described and named fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) by Kenneth Jones and his colleagues (Jones, Smith, Ulleland, & Streissguth, 1973). LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 115 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Among the distinguishing features of this syndrome are prenatal and postnatal growth retardation and facial abnormalities, including small head circumference; widely spaced eyes; short eyelid openings; a small, upturned nose; and a thin upper lip. Most FAS children have mental retardation. FAS is the leading known preventable cause of mental retardation. Now warnings of possible birth defects are required on alcoholic beverages and in establishments that serve alcohol. Behavior problems appear in infancy and persist into childhood; the most common are irritability, hyperactivity, poor concentration, and poor social skills. Sometimes affected children display other physical problems such as defects of the eyes, ears, heart, urinary tract, or immune system (Aaronson & MacNee, 1989). The consequences of living in an alcoholic family are particularly difficult for young children and adolescents because alcoholism affects the process of socialization of values, morals, attitudes, behavior, gender roles, self-control, and self-concept. The effects of alcoholism depend on the child's age, gender, relationship to the drinking and nondrinking parents, and relationship to other family members or other social networks. Children whose parents abuse alcohol are prone to a range of psychological difficulties, including learning disabilities, anxiety, attempted and completed suicides, eating disorders, and compulsive achieving. The problems of most of such children remain invisible because their coping behavior tends to be approval-seeking and socially acceptable. They do their work, do not rock the boat, and do not reveal their secret. Many are high achievers and eager to please. Yet their adaptation to the chaos and inconsistency of an alcohol-abusing family often results in developing an inability to trust, an extreme need to control, an excessive sense of responsibility, and denial of feelings, all of which result in low self-esteem, depression, isolation, guilt, and difficulty maintaining satisfying relationships. These and other problems often persist throughout adulthood (Black, 1991; Leershen & Namuth, 1988; Tubman, 1993; Woititz, 1990). The child is often embarrassed by his or her parents. The ashamed child does not invite friends home and is afraid to ask anyone for help. The child also feels anger toward the alcoholic parent for drinking and may be angry with the nonalcoholic parent for lack of support and protection. The child may even feel guilty, perceiving himself or herself as the cause of the parent's drinking (AACAP, 2002d). Although the child tries to keep the parent's alcoholism a secret, teachers, friends, relatives, or other caring adults may sense that something is wrong. The following behaviors may signal a problem (AACAP, 2002d): Failure in school; truancy Lack of friends; withdrawal from classmates Delinquent behavior, such as stealing or violence Frequent physical complaints, such as headaches or stomachaches Abuse of drugs or alcohol LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 116 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Aggression toward other children Risk-taking behaviors Depression or suicidal thoughts or behavior Whether or not their parents are receiving treatment for alcoholism, these children can benefit from programs such as Al-Anon and Alateen. Therapists can help these children understand that they are not responsible for their parents' drinking problems. Therapists can also help the family, particularly when the alcoholic has stopped drinking, develop healthier ways of relating to one another (AACAP, 2002d). Macrosystem Influences on Teaching How is teaching in the classroom influenced by factors in the larger society? Macrosystem influences on teaching include philosophical and theoretical foundations of teaching and learning that have undergone change over the years; classroom and curriculum contexts affected by school administration; and policies and procedures regarding accountability for achievement (standardization and individuation). Philosophies of Teaching and Learning Why do some teachers direct children, whereas others let children find their own direction, in the learning environment? Philosophies of teaching range from emphasis on the learner, with the goal of expanding an individual's knowledge (learner-directed), to emphasis on the teacher, with the goal of methodically presenting new knowledge to the student (teacherdirected). One root of the learner-directed teaching philosophy comes from the Greek philosopher Socrates (469--399 B.C.E.), who believed "Knowledge is virtue." He developed the Socratic method, eliciting knowledge from individuals by questioning their statements until a satisfactory logical conclusion was reached. One root of the teacher-directed philosophy comes from the psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904--1990), who believed that any student can be conditioned to learn any subject, provided the tasks involved are divided into small, sequenced steps and the learner is reinforced appropriately for desired responses or behaviors (positive consequences for desirable behavior and negative consequences for undesirable behavior). This became known as the behaviorist method. There are many types of educational programs, based on various philosophies of teaching and learning. For the sake of simplicity, the programs discussed here are categorized according to their emphasis on who takes responsibility for the learning that takes place---the teacher or the learner (see Table 7.1). In reality, most programs emphasize both teacher and student responsibility for learning, but to different degrees. Because different programs provide different learning environments, experiences, and interactions, the school's program influences a child's development and socialization in a particular way. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 117 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Another root of teacher-directed learning can be traced back to Plato's (427-- 347 B.C.E.) Republic. Plato's thesis stated that the mind is what it learns, so the content of the curriculum is vital for an educated society. Teacher-directed educational environments usually subscribe to the philosophy that the functions of the school are to impart basic factual knowledge (reading, writing, arithmetic) and to preserve the American cultural heritage (Sadker & Sadker, 2003; Toch, 1996). Those who support this philosophy believe that education should include homework, tests, memorization, and strict discipline. They view the school as a place where hard work and obedience are expected. The teacher structures the curriculum. Subjects chosen are based on the teacher's, school's, or community's goals. Another root of learner-directed learning can be traced back to Rousseau's Emile (1762). Rousseau concentrated on the development of the child rather than the subjects to be taught. His thesis stated that how learning occurs is more important than what is taught. John Dewey (1859--1952), influenced by Rousseau, was the first progressive educator. He believed that education should place emphasis on the children and their interests, rather than on subject matter. Dewey also believed that education was a process of living, not a preparation for living. Those who subscribe to this philosophy believe learning occurs spontaneously and occurs best when children can interact with materials and people in their environment. Learning materials may be grouped in various centers, which children explore. Children are given opportunities for inquiry and discovery. They become involved in their own learning LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 118 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola by making choices about what they will learn. Subject matter is integrated into student activities. Learner-directed educational environments usually subscribe to the philosophy that the function of the school is to develop the whole child. Curriculum emerges from the child's interests and abilities, and knowledge is constructed as the child is capable of processing it (Toch, 1996). This process is called "constructivism." The teacher scaffolds, or supports, the child's initiated learning via appropriate curriculum. To explore the influence of teaching philosophies on learning outcomes, Putnam (1983) observed the classroom interactions in six inner-city kindergartens--- three of which followed a traditional or teacher-directed approach to reading readiness and three of which followed an interactive or more learner-directed approach. Putnam (1986) found that teachers in the traditional kindergartens believed that before trying to read, children should develop a set of foundational skills---visual and auditory discrimination, letter naming, beginning word sounds, and so on---that would allow them to be successful when they learned to read in first grade. The following is an example of this approach. Mrs. Hall's kindergartners have just listened to a song about Mr. D., who loves doughnuts, dogs, deer, and other things that begin with "d." Mrs. Hall then asks the children to name other things that begin with the "d" sound. "Raise your hand; don't call out, speak in a sentence," she says. One child says, "I sit at a desk." "Very good, 'desk' begins with 'd,'" replies Mrs. Hall. After several responses the children are given worksheets on which they are to circle pictures of items beginning with a "d." In this teacher-directed environment, the children were expected to sit quietly, follow directions, listen attentively, and talk only when called upon to answer a question. Discussion with fellow classmates was frowned upon. In contrast, Putnam (1986) found that teachers in the interactive or learnerdirected kindergartens created a reading environment in the following ways. They gave children plentiful opportunities to listen to literature and nonfiction being read aloud. They provided opportunities for children to act out and discuss the readings. They allowed children to express their understanding of the readings through art. They enabled the children to experiment with writing and reading their own "books." There was some instruction in letter sounds, but most of the focus was on interpreting whole messages. The children were encouraged to collaborate with one another in talking, asking questions, and comprehending material. The children spent time each day "reading" a book (looking at pictures, reciting the story, and trying to decode the words) or "writing" a story (drawing, inventing spelling, and LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 119 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola talking about ideas). The teacher moved around listening to pretend readings, asking the writers to "read" their stories, helping with invented spelling, answering questions, and praising efforts. In this learner-directed approach to reading readiness, the children had a greater degree of control, choice, and responsibility. Socialization Outcomes of Different Classroom Contexts What does research say about the effects of teacher-directed and learner-directed programs on socialization? In a review of approximately 200 research studies on elementary school programs, Horwitz (1979) noted the different socializing effects of modern versus traditional settings. In general, he found that children in modern (learner-directed) settings tended to have a more positive attitude about school and their teachers than did children in traditional (teacher-directed) settings. They were more likely to find friends of both genders. They also tended to be involved in cooperative work more often and showed more autonomy, or self-reliant behavior. Why? Modern and traditional environments provide different opportunities for cooperative work. In traditional environments, teachers generally teach to the whole class and children work individually; sharing information is seen as cheating. In modern classrooms, there is considerable small-group effort and an emphasis on developing a cooperative work ethic (Atkinson & Green, 1990; Minuchin & Shapiro, 1983). Horwitz did not find any significant differences in the academic achievement of children in modern versus traditional settings. However, later studies (Chall, 2000; Good & Brophy, 1986) indicated that students in traditional, teacher-directed classrooms tended to perform better academically than students in modern, learnerdirected programs. Why? Most likely it was because standardized tests are based more on teacher-directed goals than on learner-directed ones. In a study of kindergartners, first graders, and second graders, students in learner-directed classrooms reported being more interested in schoolwork and learning than did students in teacher-directed classrooms. The children in the teacher-directed classrooms showed significant signs of becoming alienated from school (Daniels, Kalkman, McCombs, 2001). We can conclude, then, that different patterns of competence emerge as a result of the different experiences that children have in various programs (Daniels et al., 2001; Toch, 1996). Social competence is enhanced in instructional settings where students interact with each other and the teacher to accomplish educational goals; academic competence is fostered in instructional settings where students are motivated and rewarded for accomplishing the teacher's educational goals. How can teachers structure and manage classroom activities to encourage certain socialization outcomes? To encourage certain socialization outcomes, instructional settings can be organized into "goal structures" (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). The three types of goal structures are cooperative, in which students work together to accomplish shared goals; LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 120 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola competitive, in which students work against each other to achieve goals that only a few students can attain; and individualized, in which one student's achievement of a goal is unrelated to other students' achievement of that goal. Each type of goal structure, according to Johnson and Johnson, promotes a different pattern of interaction among students. A cooperative goal structure promotes positive interpersonal relationships, such as sharing, helping, trust, and acceptance. A competitive goal structure promotes comparisons and mistrust and for some, achievement motivation. An individualized goal structure promotes student--teacher interaction and responsibility for oneself. Table 7.2 describes the conditions under which each goal structure is most effective in promoting the desired learning. An interesting application of the cooperative type of goal structure, as it relates to socialization, was described by Aronson and Patenoe (1996). The goal of the activity was to get students in a newly integrated classroom to interact positively with one another. The students were divided into small groups and given tasks in which they had to cooperate with each other in order to succeed. Each student was given a piece of information that the rest of the group needed in order to finish the task. All the members had to share their pieces of information with the others. Aronson called this "the jigsaw-puzzle method." The results were higher achievement, a decrease in social insults, higher self-esteem, and improved attitudes toward school. Several successful adaptations of cooperative goal structures have been developed to include children with disabilities and those who are ethnically diverse and to prepare students for an increasingly collaborative workforce (Slavin, 1991). LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 121 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola Thus, the way teachers manage the classroom environment, including arranging the room, planning the activities, observing behavior, and organizing groups, affects the socialization taking place in that classroom. Mesosystem Influences on Teaching What links to other microsystems foster student learning in the classroom? Mesosystem influences on teaching include community support and family involvement. Community support can be financial, as in donations and grants to school programs; it can be service-oriented, as in availing professional resources to teachers; it can be extensions of the learning environment, as in providing guest speakers to classrooms and enabling class field trips. Family involvement and collaboration with teachers are important throughout school, but are especially important before the child enters formal school so that appropriate attitudes toward future learning are developed. Families help ready children for school and support school goals. Developmentally Appropriate Learning and Assessment How should "readiness-to-learn" be evaluated? Standardized tests, in which an individual is compared to a norm on scientifically selected items, have been developed to assess kindergarten readiness. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (1988) asserts that such tests are inappropriate for young children because each child comes from a unique set of family experiences. What one family makes available for its children, another does not. Some children travel extensively; others seldom go outside their immediate community. Some children speak a language other than English. Some have had preschool experiences; others remained at home. Also, maturational differences influence children's ability to perform well on standardized tests---for example, the ability to listen and follow instructions, control a pencil, and sit still for a certain period of time. An alternative way of evaluating a child's readiness to learn is to use authentic assessments (for example, evaluating a portfolio of a child's writing or art), rather than relying solely on standardized paper-and-pencil tests. Teachers can also individualize instruction and provide developmentally appropriate activities for students to enable success at learning, rather than relying solely on standardized curricula. SUPPLEMENTAL LEARNING ACTIVITY: SELF- AND PEER FEEDBACK After reading the learning content and doing your personal outline and summary, determine the specific topics that are clear to you and the specific topics that you need to get clarified with, if any. In addition, work with a friend and identify the specific topics that he/she friend needs help with. Lastly, narrate what you and your