NWACC Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide PDF

NWACC Anatomy & Physiology Comprehensive Final Study Guide Body Plan, Organization, Homeostasis -7 Questions (Martini Chapter 1) 1. Define anatomy and physiology. Anatomy: The study of the structure and organization of livin...

NWACC Anatomy & Physiology Comprehensive Final Study Guide Body Plan, Organization, Homeostasis -7 Questions (Martini Chapter 1) 1. Define anatomy and physiology. Anatomy: The study of the structure and organization of living organisms, including their systems, organs, and tissues. Physiology: The study of the functions and processes of the various systems and organs in the body. 2. Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the simplest to the most complex. cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the organism itself. 3. Name each of the 12 major organ systems and functions of each system. Integumentary System-Function: Protects the body from external damage, regulates temperature, and prevents water loss. Includes skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Skeletal System-Function: Provides structure and support, protects internal organs, assists movement with muscles, and produces blood cells in the bone marrow. Muscular System-Function: Enables movement of the body and internal organs, maintains posture, and generates heat. Nervous System-Function: Controls and coordinates body activities by transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. Includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Endocrine System- Function: Produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other processes. Includes glands such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System-Function: Transports blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes throughout the body. Includes the heart and blood vessels. Lymphatic (Immune) System-Function: Defends against infections and disease, returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream. Includes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and the spleen. Respiratory System-Function: Supplies the blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. Includes the lungs, trachea, and nasal passages. Digestive System-Function: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates solid waste. Includes the stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas. Urinary (Excretory) System-Function: Removes waste products from the blood, maintains water and electrolyte balance. Includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Reproductive System-Function: Produces sex cells and hormones, and in females, supports the development of offspring. Includes testes in males and ovaries in females. Immune System (sometimes grouped with the lymphatic system) -Function: Identifies and destroys pathogens and abnormal body cells to protect against disease.  4. Summarize the concept of homeostasis. The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes, crucial for survival. 5. Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation. Negative Feedback: A process that responds a change, when a system deviates from its normal range (set point), sensors detect the change and activate effectors to respond or negate the change. e.g., regulation of body temperature. Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change, when a change is detected, the response increases the deviation from the set point, often leading to a climactic event. e.g., blood clotting and childbirth. 6. Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, regions, and relative positions. anterior (front), posterior (back), superior (above), inferior (below). 7. Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and major organs of each. Dorsal body cavity- Cranial cavity: Contains the brain. Spinal avity: Contains the spinal cord. Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity: Pleural cavities (2): Each contains a lung. Pericardial cavity: Contains the heart, within the mediastinum. Abdominopelvic cavity (inferior to diaphragm): Abdominal cavity: Contains digestive organs such as the stomach, liver, pancreas, kidneys, intestines. Pelvic cavity: Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and the rectum. Histology -8 Questions (Martini Chapter 4) 1. Recognize the four tissue types and match each to its primary function.  Epithelial Tissue – Protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration  Connective Tissue – Support, binding, and protection  Muscle Tissue – Movement  Nervous Tissue – Communication and control 2. Classify epithelium by cell shape and number of layers matching each to its description, function and location. Epithelial tissue covers surfaces, connective tissue supports and binds, muscle tissue facilitates movement, and nervous tissue transmits signals Type Description Function Location Diffusion and Air sacs of lungs, lining Simple Squamous Single layer of flat cells filtration of blood vessels Simple Cuboidal Single layer of cube- Secretion and Kidney tubules, glands  Type Description Function Location like cells absorption Single layer of tall, Absorption, Digestive tract lining Simple Columnar narrow cells secretion of mucus (stomach to anus) Stratified Multiple layers of flat Protects against Skin, mouth, esophagus Squamous cells abrasion Stratified 2+ layers of cube- Ducts of sweat and Protection, secretion Cuboidal shaped cells mammary glands Stratified Multiple layers, surface Protection and Male urethra, some Columnar cells columnar secretion glands Transitional Shape-shifting, multi- Stretch and recoil Urinary bladder, ureters Epithelium layered 3. Recognize a diagram, slide, or photomicrograph of the following types of epithelium: Simple, Stratified, Transitional 4. Contrast exocrine and endocrine glands. Exocrine glands- small tubes called ducts to send things like sweat, saliva, or digestive juices to the outside of the body or into places like the mouth or stomach. Endocraine glands- they release hormones directly into the blood, which then carries them to different parts of the body to help control things like growth, energy, and mood 5. Identify the general characteristics and locations of connective tissues and classify them by structure and function. Category Type Structure Function Location Connective Loose fibers, open Cushions organs, holds Under skin, around Loose (areolar) Tissue Proper space fluids blood vessels Stores energy, insulates, Under skin, around Adipose Fat cells, little matrix protects organs Tightly packed Strong attachment, Dense regular Tendons, ligaments collagen fibers, parallel resists pulling Thick collagen fibers, Strength in many Dermis of skin, joint Dense irregular irregular pattern directions capsules Network of reticular Reticular Supports soft organs Spleen, lymph nodes fibers Supports and cushions Nose, trachea, ends of Cartilage Hyaline Smooth, glassy matrix joints long bones Maintains shape while Elastic Flexible fibers Ear, epiglottis allowing flexibility Intervertebral discs, Fibrocartilage Thick collagen bundles Absorbs shock knee meniscus Hard matrix with Compact and Supports body, protects Bone calcium salts and Skeleton spongy bone organs, stores minerals collagen Liquid matrix Plasma, red and Transports gases, Blood (plasma), free-moving white cells nutrients, wastes cells 6. From a diagram, slide, or photomicrograph, recognize the following types of connective tissue: Areolar, Reticular, Adipose, Dense regular and irregular, Blood, Bone, Cartilage  7. Compare and contrast the Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth muscle tissues.  Skeletal Muscle o Voluntary, striated, fast, tires easily o Moves bones  Cardiac Muscle o Involuntary, striated, steady, never tires o Found only in the heart  Smooth Muscle o Involuntary, not striated, slow, fatigue-resistant o Moves things through organs (like food or blood) 8. Identify the structure and summarize the functions of serous membranes Structure: Serous membranes are thin, double-layered membranes made of epithelial tissue supported by connective tissue. The two layers are: Parietal layer: This layer lines the body cavity wall. Visceral layer: This layer covers the organs within the cavity. Functions: Serous membranes provide a protective lining for internal organs, helping to prevent friction and damage as the organs move within the body. The serous fluid between the layers helps lubricate the surfaces, allowing smooth movement of organs, such as the heart beating or lungs expanding. They help classify organs in body cavities, preventing the spread of infections between organs. Integumentary System: -7 Questions (Martini Chapter 5) 1. List the components and functions of the integumentary system. Contains: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, sensory receptors providing Functions: protection, temperature regulation, sensation, excretion, vitamin D synthesis, waterproofing 2. From a diagram, slide, description, model, or photomicrograph identify these skin structures: Epidermis, Stratum layers, Dermis, Papillary layer, Reticular layer, Hypodermis, Nerve endings, Sweat glands, Oil gland, Arrector pili muscle, Hair follicle, Hair shaft, Hair root 3. Describe the structure, function and growth of the epidermis. Structure:  Outermost layer of skin  Made of stratified squamous epithelium (mostly keratinocytes)  5 layers (deep to surface): o Stratum basale – makes new cells (mitosis), contains melanocytes & Merkel cells o Stratum spinosum – gives strength, has Langerhans cells (immune) o Stratum granulosum – cells start dying, produce keratin o Stratum lucidum – only in thick skin (palms/soles), clear layer o Stratum corneum – dead, flat cells full of keratin (protective barrier) Function:  Protects against germs, UV rays, dehydration, and injury  Waterproofs skin  Contains pigment (melanin)  Detects touch (via Merkel cells)  Immune defense (via Langerhans cells) Growth:  New cells made in stratum basale  Cells move upward, die, fill with keratin  Dead cells form protective surface layer  Entire cycle takes about 28–30 days  Outer cells constantly shed and are replaced 4. Describe the structure, function and growth of the dermis. Structure: Middle layer of skin (under epidermis) Two layers: Papillary layer – loose tissue, capillaries, sensory cells Reticular layer – dense connective tissue, collagen & elastic fibers Contains: blood vessels, nerves, sweat glands, oil glands, hair follicles Function: Provides strength, stretch, and support Supplies nutrients to epidermis Regulates body temperature (via blood vessels & sweat) Senses touch, pressure, pain, temp Helps with wound healing Growth: Grows slowly (no shedding like epidermis), Fibroblasts make collagen & elastin Repairs tissue after injury (can form scar tissue) 5. Explain differences in skin color.  Skin color is mainly caused by melanin, made by melanocytes in the stratum basale.  Everyone has the same number of melanocytes, but they produce different amounts and types of melanin.  More melanin = darker skin; less melanin = lighter skin.  Sunlight increases melanin (tanning).  Other pigments: o Carotene (yellow-orange from diet) o Hemoglobin (red, gives pink tone)  Conditions like albinism (no melanin) and vitiligo (loss of pigment) affect color. 6. Compare and contrast sebaceous and sweat glands.   Sebaceous = oil; Sweat = water  Sebaceous = with hair; Sweat = opens to skin surface  Sweat glands help cool the body; sebaceous glands keep skin/hair moist 7. Describe the temperature regulating mechanism involving the skin. The skin regulates temperature through vasodilation (increased blood flow) and sweating to cool the body. Conversely, vasoconstriction (decreased blood flow) helps retain heat in cold conditions. Skeletal System -16 Questions Osseous Tissue (Martini Chapter 6) 1. Identify these parts of a long bone: Epiphysis, Metaphysis, Diaphysis, Marrow Cavity, Periosteum, Endosteum 2. Contrast compact and spongy bone and from a diagram, micrograph, or description and identify the following structures: Osteon, Lamellae, Canaliculi, Central canal, Perforating canal, Lacunae, Trabeculae Compact Bone:  Dense and solid, organized into osteons (Haversian systems).  Contains central canals for blood vessels and nerves. Spongy Bone:  Absorbent and lighter.  Contains trabeculae (lattice-like structure) and bone marrow. Key Structures:  Osteon: Basic unit of compact bone.  Lamellae: Concentric layers around the central canal.  Canaliculi: Tiny channels that connect lacunae.  Central Canal: Contains blood vessels and nerves in osteons.  Perforating Canal: Connects central canals.  Lacunae: Small cavities that house osteocytes in both bone types.  Trabeculae: Structural components of spongy bone. 3. Identify the role of the four different osseous cells Osteoblasts (build bone), Osteocytes (maintain bone), Osteoclasts (break down bone), and Osteogenic cells (stem cells). 4. Compare and contrast the two ossification processes. 1. Intramembranous Ossification  Happens in flat bones (e.g. skull, jaw, clavicle)  Bone forms directly from mesenchyme (embryonic tissue)  Steps: mesenchymal cells → osteoblasts → form bone matrix → become osteocytes  No cartilage stage involved 2. Endochondral Ossification  Happens in most bones (e.g. long bones like femur, humerus)  Bone forms from hyaline cartilage model  Steps: cartilage forms → cartilage breaks down → bone replaces cartilage  Involves primary (diaphysis) and secondary (epiphysis) ossification centers 5. Summarize the process of remodeling for: Stress (weight distribution), Aging, Osteoporosis, Exercise. Stress (Weight Distribution):  Bones adapt to stress by growing stronger where force is applied  More stress = more bone tissue is added (increased density and strength)  Less stress = bone becomes thinner and weaker Aging:  Bone mass decreases with age  Osteoblast activity slows down, osteoclast activity may stay the same or increase  Bones become more brittle and fragile Osteoporosis:  A condition where bone loss is faster than bone formation  Bones become porous, weak, and break easily  Common in older adults, especially postmenopausal women Exercise:  Weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone growth  Increases bone density and strength  Helps prevent bone loss and osteoporosis Axial Skeleton (Martini Chapter 7) 6. Identify these skull bones and structures (2 questions) Cranial Bones Facial Bones Bone Structure Bone Structure Frontal Coronal suture Zygomatic Supraorbital foramen Frontal sinus Parietal Sagital suture Maxilla Palatine process Squamous suture Maxillary sinuses Occipital Occipital condyle Mandible Mandibular condyle Foramen magnum Body Lamboidal suture Coronoid process Ramus Angle Temporal Mastoid process Lacrimal Zygomatic process Nasal Concha Styloid process Palatine External auditory Nasal Vomer meatus Jugular foramen Carotid canal Sphenoid Sella turcica Hypophyseal fossa Greater wing Sphenoidal sinus Ethmoid Crista galli Cribiform plate Perpendicular plate Ethmoid sinuses 7. Recognize the features of these vertebrae: Cervical, Atlas (C1), Axis (C2), Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum, Coccyx   Cervical (C1–C7): small body, transverse foramina  Atlas (C1): no body, supports skull, nodding "yes"  Axis (C2): dens (odontoid process), turning "no"  Thoracic (T1–T12): rib facets, long spinous process  Lumbar (L1–L5): large body, short blunt spinous process  Sacrum: 5 fused bones, forms back of pelvis  Coccyx: small, 3–5 fused bones, tailbone 8. Identify these bones and structures of the axial skeleton: Ribs (True, False & Floating), Sternum (Manubrium, Body, Xyphoid), Hyoid bone Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton (Martini Chapter 7) 9. Identify the bones and markings of the Pectoral girdle:  Clavicle: Sternal end, Acromial end  Scapula: Acromion process, Coracoids process, Glenoid cavity, Spine, Medial border, Lateral border, Superior angle, Inferior angle 10. Identify these bones and markings of the upper limb.  Humerus: Head, Olecranon fossa, Tubercle (Greater, Lesser), Epicondyle (Lateral, Medial), Deltoid tuberosity, Lateral condyle (capitulum), Medial condyle (trochlea)  Ulna: Head, Olecranon process, Trochlear notch, Styloid process  Radius: Head, Styloid process, Radial tuberosity  Carpals:  Metacarpals: Labeling Lateral to Medial  Phalanges: Describe naming techniques, Pollex 11. Identify the structures of the Pelvic Girdle (Os Coxa) including surface anatomy and special features.  Ilium: Anterior superior and inferior iliac spines, Posterior superior and inferior iliac spines, Iliac crest, Sacroiliac joint, Greater sciatic notch  Ishium: Ischial tuberosity, Obturator foramen  Pubis: Symphysis pubis, Rami, Acetabulum (common to all regions) 12. Identify the structures of the lower limb including surface anatomy and special features.  Femur: Head, Neck, Trochanter (Greater & Lesser), Condyle (Medial & Lateral), Linea Aspera  Patella:  Tibia: Tibial tuberosity, Medial malleolus, Condyle (Medial & Lateral)  Fibula: Head, Lateral malleolus  Tarsals: Calcaneus, Talus  Metatarsals: Labeled medial to lateral  Phalanges: Proximal, Intermediate, Distal, Halicus (Proximal, Distal) Articulations (Martini Chapter 9) 13. Recognize the structures of a synovial joint: Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Capsule, Synovial fluid, Bone, Bursae  Cartilage: covers bone ends, reduces friction Tendons: connect muscle to bone, help with movement Ligaments: connect bone to bone, provide stability Capsule: outer layer that encloses the joint Synovial Fluid: lubricates joint, reduces friction Bone: forms the joint structure Bursae: fluid-filled sacs that cushion and reduce friction between tissues 14. Recognize, demonstrate or describe these movements: Gliding, Flexion, Extension, Hyperextension, Abduction, Adduction, Circumduction, Rotation, Pronation, Supination Inversion, Eversion, Dorsiflexion, Plantarflexion, Protraction, Retraction, Elevation, Depression, Opposition  Gliding: bones slide over each other – waving your hand side to side (wrist bones)  Flexion: bending a joint – bending your elbow or knee  Extension: straightening a joint – straightening your arm or leg  Hyperextension: bending too far backward – tilting your head back  Abduction: moving away from the body – lifting your arm or leg to the side  Adduction: moving toward the body – bringing your arm or leg back in  Circumduction: moving in a circle – making big arm circles  Rotation: turning around – turning your head side to side  Pronation: palm turns down – turning your hand to type on a keyboard  Supination: palm turns up – holding a bowl of soup in your hand  Inversion: foot turns inward – twisting your ankle inward  Eversion: foot turns outward – twisting your ankle outward  Dorsiflexion: lifting foot up – walking on your heels  Plantarflexion: pointing toes down – standing on tiptoes  Protraction: moving forward – pushing your jaw or shoulders forward  Retraction: pulling back – pulling your jaw or shoulders back  Elevation: moving up – shrugging your shoulders  Depression: moving down – dropping your shoulders  Opposition: touching thumb to fingers – picking up a coin 15. Describe some key structures and movements of these joints: Spine, Shoulder, Elbow, Hip, Knee Spine:  Structures: vertebrae, intervertebral discs, ligaments  Movements: flexion (bending forward), extension (bending back), rotation (twisting), lateral flexion (bending side to side) Shoulder (Ball-and-Socket Joint):   Structures: humerus (upper arm), scapula (shoulder blade), clavicle (collarbone), rotator cuff muscles  Movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction Elbow (Hinge Joint):  Structures: humerus, radius, ulna, ligaments  Movements: flexion (bending) and extension (straightening); some rotation (pronation/supination of forearm) Hip (Ball-and-Socket Joint):  Structures: femur (thigh bone), pelvis (hip bone), strong ligaments  Movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction (similar to shoulder but more stable) Knee (Hinge Joint):  Structures: femur, tibia, patella (kneecap), ligaments (ACL, PCL), menisci (cartilage pads)  Movements: flexion and extension; slight rotation when flexed for stability Muscle tissue -6 Questions (Martini Chapter 10) 1. Identify these portions of a muscle: Muscle belly, Tendon, Fasicle, Epimysium, Perimysium, endomysium, Muscle fiber (myofiber), Myofibril, Sarcomere, Thin and thick filaments, Zone of overlap, Myofilaments, Thin (Actin, Troponin, Tropomyosin, G actin binding site), Thick (Myosin, head) Muscle Belly: thick, central part of the muscle that contracts Tendon: connects muscle to bone Fascicle: a bundle of muscle fibers (cells) Epimysium: outer layer that covers the entire muscle Perimysium: wraps around each fascicle Endomysium: surrounds each individual muscle fiber Muscle Fiber (Myofiber): a single muscle cell Myofibril: long fibers inside the muscle cell, made of repeating units Sarcomere: the basic unit of contraction in a myofibril, made of filaments Myofilaments: tiny protein threads in sarcomeres a. Thin Filaments (Actin): i. Actin: main part of thin filament ii. Troponin: binds calcium to start contraction iii. Tropomyosin: blocks binding sites until contraction starts  iv. G actin binding site: where myosin attaches b. Thick Filaments (Myosin): i. Myosin: has a head that pulls on actin to contract the muscle ii. Myosin Head: attaches to actin and pulls during contraction Zone of Overlap: where thick and thin filaments overlap in the sarcomere – important for muscle contraction 2. Describe the neuromuscular junction and trace the events in neural stimulation of a muscle. The neuromuscular junction is where a motor neuron connects to a muscle fiber. When a nerve signal reaches the synaptic terminal, it causes the release of acetylcholine (ACh) into the synaptic cleft, which then binds to receptors on the muscle fiber. This triggers an electrical signal that travels along the muscle and into the T-tubules, releasing calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin, allowing myosin to attach to actin and pull, resulting in muscle contraction. 3. Explain the contraction sequence inside the muscle fiber.  Action potential triggers the release of acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction.  The signal travels along the sarcolemma and into the T-tubules, causing the release of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin and exposing myosin-binding sites on actin.  Myosin heads attach to actin, forming cross-bridges and pull actin filaments, causing contraction.  Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the muscle relaxes. 4. Summarize tension production and the types of contractions including these terms: Twitch, Treppe, Wave summation, Tetany (Incomplete, Complete), Isotonic contraction (Concentric, Eccentric), Isometric contraction Twitch: A single, brief contraction in response to one action potential. Treppe: A gradual increase in contraction strength with repeated stimuli (like the "staircase effect"). Wave Summation: When stimuli arrive before the previous contraction ends, resulting in a stronger contraction. Tetany: Continuous contraction without relaxation. a. Incomplete Tetany: A sustained contraction with slight relaxation between stimuli. b. Complete Tetany: A sustained contraction with no relaxation between stimuli. Isotonic Contraction: Muscle changes length while maintaining constant tension. c. Concentric: Muscle shortens while contracting (e.g., lifting a weight). d. Eccentric: Muscle lengthens while contracting (e.g., lowering a weight). Isometric Contraction: Muscle generates tension without changing length (e.g., holding a heavy object in place). 5. Explain a motor unit and its function. A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls. When the motor neuron sends a signal, all the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract simultaneously. The size of the motor unit can vary, with smaller motor units controlling fine, precise movements (e.g., eye muscles) and larger motor units controlling less precise, powerful movements (e.g., leg muscles). The function of a motor unit is to facilitate coordinated muscle contraction, allowing for both fine motor control and strong, sustained muscle actions. 6. Describe the role of energy molecules in muscle contraction and their formation by aerobic and anaerobic processes and factors that contribute to fatigue. Energy Molecules in Muscle Contraction:  ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy source for muscle contraction. During contraction, ATP is broken down into ADP and phosphate, releasing energy that powers the muscle fibers. Energy Formation: 1. Aerobic Process (with oxygen): o Takes place in the mitochondria of muscle cells. o Glucose and fatty acids are broken down into ATP through cellular respiration. o Produces a large amount of ATP, making it ideal for prolonged, endurance activities (e.g., running, cycling). o Byproducts: carbon dioxide and water. 2. Anaerobic Process (without oxygen): o Takes place in the cytoplasm of muscle cells. o Glucose is broken down into lactic acid via glycolysis, producing a small amount of ATP quickly. o Ideal for short bursts of intense activity (e.g., weightlifting, sprinting). o Byproduct: lactic acid, which can accumulate and lead to muscle fatigue. Factors Contributing to Fatigue: 1. ATP Depletion: When ATP is used faster than it is produced, muscles cannot contract efficiently. 2. Lactic Acid Build-Up: Accumulation of lactic acid lowers the pH in muscles, causing discomfort and reducing contraction efficiency. 3. Oxygen Deficit: Insufficient oxygen during anaerobic activity reduces the ability to produce ATP aerobically. 4. Ion Imbalance: During prolonged activity, ion gradients across muscle membranes (like calcium and potassium) can become disrupted, affecting muscle contraction. 5. Dehydration & Electrolyte Loss: Loss of fluids and electrolytes during exercise can impair muscle function and contribute to fatigue. Muscular System -6 Questions (Martini Chapter 11) 7. Identify key muscles of the different regions of the body by location and action Head and SCM (sternocleidomastoid) Chest Pectoralis Major and Minor neck Serratus Anterior Intercostals Upper Back Trapezius Abdomen Rectus Abdominis Levator Scapulae External /Internal Obliques Rhomboids Transversus abdominis Lower Back Latissimus Dorsi Shoulder Deltoid Teres Major Rotator Cuff (SITS) Erector Spinae  Upper Arm Biceps Anterior Illiopsoas Triceps Hip Forearm Gluteal Gluteus Maximus Gluteus Medius Lower leg Tibialis Anterior Thigh Vastus Medialis Gastrocnemius Vastus Intermedius Soleus Vastus Lateralis Rectus Femoris Biceps Femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Adductor Longus Adductor Magnus Nervous System: Neural Tissue -8 Questions (Martini Chapter 12) 1. Describe the anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system. Anatomical Divisions:  Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord; processes information and controls responses  Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all nerves outside the CNS; connects the body to the brain and spinal cord Functional Divisions:  Sensory (Afferent) Division: carries info from body to CNS (e.g., touch, pain, temperature)  Motor (Efferent) Division: carries commands from CNS to muscles and glands o Somatic Nervous System: controls voluntary muscles (like moving your arm) o Autonomic Nervous System: controls involuntary actions (like heartbeat, digestion)  Sympathetic: "fight or flight" (speeds things up)  Parasympathetic: "rest and digest" (slows things down) 2. From a drawing, microscopic slide or description, identify the following neuron structures, matching each to its function: soma dendrite axon axon hillock synaptic knobs teleodendria synaptic vesicles collateral Nissil bodies Nodes of Ranvier 1. Soma: Cell body; contains the nucleus and organelles, responsible for the neuron's functions. 2. Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons. 3. Axon: Transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or cells. 4. Axon Hillock: Site where action potentials are generated. 5. Synaptic Knobs: Release neurotransmitters for communication with other cells. 6. Synaptic Vesicles: Store and release neurotransmitters. 7. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that speed up signal transmission. 3. Describe the structure of the myelin sheath and its significance to the function of neurons.  Structure: A fatty layer made by glial cells (Schwann cells in the PNS, oligodendrocytes in the CNS) that wraps around the axon in segments.  Key Function: Speeds up nerve impulses by allowing signals to jump between gaps (Nodes of Ranvier) — a process called saltatory conduction.  Importance: Increases the speed and efficiency of communication in the nervous system. 4. Explain how the resting potential is created and maintained.  Sodium-potassium pump:  Moves 3 Na⁺ (SODIUM)out and 2 K⁺(POTYASSIUM) in  Makes inside more negative  Potassium leaks out:  More K⁺ leaves the cell  Adds to the negative charge inside  Sodium can't easily enter  Helps keep the inside negative 5. Describe the events involved in the generation and propagation of an action potential., including these key terms: voltage-gated channels chemically gated channels threshold potential depolarization repolarization refractory period graded (local) potential all-or-none 1. Resting State  Neuron is at -70 mV  Voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels are closed 2. Graded (Local) Potential  Chemically gated channels open (from a stimulus like a neurotransmitter)  Small, local changes in membrane potential  If strong enough, it reaches threshold potential (about -55 mV) 3. Threshold Potential  The minimum voltage needed to trigger an action potential  Opens voltage-gated Na⁺ channels 4. Depolarization  Na⁺ rushes into the neuron  Inside becomes more positive (up to +30 mV) 5. Repolarization  Na⁺ channels close  Voltage-gated K⁺ channels open  K⁺ leaves the cell → inside becomes more negative again 6. Refractory Period   Time when the neuron can’t fire again right away  Ensures one-way signal travel  Na⁺/K⁺ pumps restore resting state 7. All-or-None Principle  If threshold is reached: action potential happens completely  If not: no action potential at all 6. List the factors that affect the speed with which action potentials are propagated, and contrast continuous and saltatory propagation. Factors That Affect Action Potential Speed 1. Myelination o Myelinated axons = faster o Unmyelinated axons = slower 2. Axon Diameter o Larger diameter = faster (less resistance) 3. Temperature o Warmer temperatures = faster conduction o Colder = slower Continuous vs. Saltatory Propagation Feature Continuous Propagation Saltatory Propagation Occurs in Unmyelinated axons Myelinated axons Speed Slower Faster How signal moves Travels along the entire axon Jumps from Node of Ranvier to node Energy use More energy required More efficient (less ion exchange needed) 7. Identify the following structures of a cholinergic synapse and list the sequence of events in synaptic activity. presynaptic neuron postsynatic neuron calcium channel synaptic vesicle neurotransmitter synaptic cleft receptor Key Structures in a Cholinergic Synapse 1. Presynaptic neuron – The neuron sending the signal 2. Calcium channels – Located on the presynaptic axon terminal 3. Synaptic vesicles – Contain acetylcholine (the neurotransmitter) 4. Neurotransmitter – Acetylcholine (ACh) in this case 5. Synaptic cleft – Gap between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons 6. Receptor – On the postsynaptic neuron, binds to ACh 7. Postsynaptic neuron – The neuron receiving the signal Sequence of Synaptic Activity 1. Action potential arrives at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron 2. Voltage-gated calcium channels open → Ca²⁺ enters the terminal 3. Ca²⁺ causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane 4. Acetylcholine (ACh) is released into the synaptic cleft 5. ACh binds to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron 6. Postsynaptic neuron is stimulated → may generate an action potential 7. ACh is broken down by acetylcholinesterase to stop the signal 8. Describe the interaction that enable information processing to occur in neural tissue, including these key terms: Excitatory PSP Inhibitory PSP temporal summation spatial summation 1. Postsynaptic Potentials (PSPs)  Small changes in membrane potential on the postsynaptic neuron  Can be excitatory or inhibitory 2. Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)  Makes the neuron more likely to fire (depolarization)  Moves membrane closer to threshold 3. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)  Makes the neuron less likely to fire (hyperpolarization)  Moves membrane further from threshold 4. Temporal Summation  One synapse fires repeatedly over time  PSPs add up to reach threshold 5. Spatial Summation  Multiple synapses fire at the same time  Inputs from different places combine on the postsynaptic neuron Nervous System: Spinal Cord, Nerves and Reflexes -5 Questions (Martini Chapter 13) 9. Identify these spinal cord structures: cauda equina gray commissure central canal posterior median sulcus gray horns columns anterior spinal root anterior median fissure posterior root ganglion posterior spinal root lumbar enlargement conus medularis spinal nerve rami communicantes sympathetic ganglia cervical enlargement 10. Recognize the functional organization of white matter and gray matter (nuclei, ganglia, tracts) of the spinal cord. 1. Gray Matter  Found in the center of the spinal cord.  Function: Processes information (sensory and motor).  Contains neuron cell bodies.  Parts: o Ventral Horn: Controls movement (motor). o Dorsal Horn: Receives sensory info (touch, pain, etc.). 2. White Matter  Surrounds gray matter.  Function: Sends signals between the brain and body.  Made of myelinated nerve fibers.  Parts: o Dorsal Columns: Sensory info (touch, body position). o Lateral Columns: Motor and sensory info (pain, temperature). o Ventral Columns: Motor commands from the brain. 3. Nuclei and Ganglia  Nuclei: Clusters of neuron bodies in the spinal cord.  Ganglia: Clusters outside the spinal cord (near spinal roots), relay sensory and motor signals. 4. Spinal Tracts  Ascending Tracts: Carry sensory info to the brain.  Descending Tracts: Carry motor commands from the brain to muscles. 11. Recognize the location and relate the distribution pattern of spinal nerves to the regions they innervate, including the following features: cervical plexus (phrenic), brachial plexus (axillary, musculocutaneous, radial, median, ulnar), lumbar plexus (femoral, obturator), sacral plexus (sciatic- tibial & fibular), intercostal nerves, dermatomes 1. Cervical Plexus  Location: C1-C4 spinal nerves (neck area).  Function: Supplies the neck, shoulders, and diaphragm.  Key Nerve: Phrenic Nerve o Controls the diaphragm, which is essential for breathing. 2. Brachial Plexus  Location: C5-T1 spinal nerves (upper back, neck, and shoulder area).  Function: Supplies the upper limbs (arms, hands).  Key Nerves: o Axillary Nerve: Controls the shoulder area. o Musculocutaneous Nerve: Controls muscles in the upper arm. o Radial Nerve: Controls muscles on the back of the arm and forearm. o Median Nerve: Controls muscles in the forearm and hand (important for gripping). o Ulnar Nerve: Controls muscles in the forearm and hand (important for fine motor skills like finger movements). 3. Lumbar Plexus  Location: L1-L4 spinal nerves (lower back).  Function: Supplies the lower abdomen, pelvis, and anterior thigh.  Key Nerves: o Femoral Nerve: Controls the muscles of the front of the thigh (important for leg movement). o Obturator Nerve: Controls muscles of the inner thigh (important for leg adduction). 4. Sacral Plexus  Location: L4-S4 spinal nerves (lower back and pelvis).  Function: Supplies the pelvis, buttocks, and lower limbs.  Key Nerve: o Sciatic Nerve: The largest nerve in the body, splits into two branches:  Tibial Nerve: Controls muscles of the posterior thigh, lower leg, and foot.  Fibular (Peroneal) Nerve: Controls muscles of the lower leg and foot (important for foot movement). 5. Intercostal Nerves  Location: T1-T11 spinal nerves (between the ribs).  Function: Supply the muscles between the ribs and skin of the chest wall.  Key Function: Involved in breathing (intercostal muscles) and sensation in the chest. 6. Dermatomes  Function: Each spinal nerve innervates a specific area of skin called a dermatome.  Purpose: Helps identify the sensory areas affected by nerve damage (e.g., if a certain dermatome loses sensation, it helps locate which spinal nerve is affected). 12. Trace a simple spinal reflex arc. 13. Explain the importance of reflexes in regulating body systems.  Reflexes are essential for protecting the body, maintaining homeostasis, and ensuring that vital body functions (like movement, breathing, digestion, and temperature control) happen smoothly and automatically.  They allow for quick, involuntary responses to stimuli, ensuring the body can react without needing to process information through the brain, making the responses faster and more efficient.  Nervous System: The Brain and Ceranial Nerves -8 Questions (Martini Chapter 14) 14. Describe the structure and function of the cranial meninges. 1. Dura Mater  Tough, outermost layer.  Protects the brain and contains blood vessels. 2. Arachnoid Mater  Middle layer with a web-like structure.  Contains the subarachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushions the brain. 3. Pia Mater  Innermost, thin layer.  Closely adheres to the brain, providing nutrients and protection. 15. Explain how the brain is protected and supported and describe the formation, circulation and function of cerebral spinal fluid.The brain is protected by the skull, meninges, CSF, and the blood-brain barrier. CSF is made in the ventricles, flows around the brain and spinal cord, and helps with cushioning, support, waste removal, and chemical balance. 16. Locate and identify the function of these brain structures: 2 questions medulla oblongata pons midbrain cerebellum thalamus hypothalamus pituitary (hypophysis) cerebrum pineal gland brain stem diencephalon mesencephalon cerebellum cerebrum ventricles  Medulla oblongata – Keeps you alive! Controls heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.  Pons – Helps you breathe and connects different brain parts.  Midbrain (mesencephalon) – Handles reflexes and helps with seeing and hearing stuff.  Cerebellum – Balance and coordination; helps you move smoothly.  Cerebrum – Big boss of the brain: thinking, memory, decisions, emotions, and movement.  Thalamus – Like a relay station; sends messages to the right parts of the brain.  Hypothalamus – Controls body temp, hunger, thirst, and tells the pituitary what to do.  Pituitary (hypophysis) – The “master gland” that releases hormones.  Pineal gland – Controls sleep by making melatonin.  Brain stem – Made of midbrain + pons + medulla; handles basic life stuff (breathing, heartbeat).  Diencephalon – Made of thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal gland.  Mesencephalon – Another word for midbrain.  Ventricles – Fluid-filled spaces that protect the brain and carry nutrients. 17. Identify the major anatomic features of the cerebrum, including the following: gyri sulci hemispheres  fissures lobes corpus callosum olfactory bulb cerebral nuclei cortex  Gyri (gyrus = 1) – The raised bumps or folds on the brain surface. More folds = more brainpower (space for neurons).  Sulci (sulcus = 1) – The grooves or dips between gyri. Help divide the brain into sections.  Hemispheres – The two halves of the brain:  Left = logic, language, math  Right = creativity, emotion, spatial awareness  Fissures – Deep grooves (like sulci but bigger). The longitudinal fissure separates left and right hemispheres.  Lobes – Each hemisphere has 4 lobes:  Frontal = decision-making, movement  Parietal = touch, space, and navigation  Temporal = hearing, memory  Occipital = vision  Corpus Callosum – A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres so they can talk to each other.  Olfactory Bulb – Located under the front of the brain; deals with your sense of smell.  Cerebral Nuclei (or Basal Nuclei) – Deep brain structures that help control movement and coordination.  Cortex (Cerebral Cortex) – The outer layer of the cerebrum; does all the high-level stuff like thinking, planning, and processing senses. 18. Identify the major functional regions of the cerebrum, including the following: 2 questions general interpretive primary somatic motor premotor prefrontal primary somatic sensory somatic sensory association visual auditory speech (motor and sensory)  Primary Somatic Motor Cortex – Controls voluntary movements. (Located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe)  Premotor Cortex – Plans movements and learns motor skills (like typing or playing piano). (Just in front of the motor cortex)  Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex – Detects touch, pain, pressure, temperature. (Located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe)  Somatic Sensory Association Area – Helps understand what you're touching or feeling (like recognizing your phone by touch).  Visual Cortex – Processes what you see. (In the occipital lobe)   Auditory Cortex – Processes sounds and hearing. (In the temporal lobe)  Speech Areas: o Motor Speech Area (Broca’s area) – Helps you speak clearly and move the muscles for talking. o Sensory Speech Area (Wernicke’s area) – Helps you understand spoken and written language.  Prefrontal Cortex – The “thinking” part: makes decisions, plans, solves problems, and controls emotions.  General Interpretive Area (Wernicke’s Area) – Combines info from all senses to help you understand what’s going on. (Overlaps with sensory speech area) 19. Identify the 12 pairs of cranial nerves by name, number, and function. Number Name Function I Olfactory Smell II Optic Vision III Oculomotor Eye movement, pupil constriction IV Trochlear Eye movement (down and in) V Trigeminal Facial sensation, chewing VI Abducens Eye movement (side to side) VII Facial Facial expressions, taste (front of tongue), tears/saliva VIII Vestibulocochlear Hearing and balance IX Glossopharyngeal Taste (back of tongue), swallowing, saliva X Vagus Controls internal organs (heart, lungs, digestion) XI Accessory (Spinal) Shoulder and neck movement XII Hypoglossal Tongue movement Nervous System: Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System -5 Questions (Martini Chapter 15) 20. Specify the components of the afferent and efferent divisions of the nervous system and explain what is meant by the somatic nervous system. Afferent Division (Sensory)  Function: Carries information from the body to the brain and spinal cord.  Includes: o Sensory receptors (in skin, eyes, ears, etc.) o Sensory neurons that detect:  External stimuli (touch, pain, temperature)  Internal stimuli (from organs) Efferent Division (Motor)  Function: Carries instructions from the brain and spinal cord to the body (muscles and glands).  Divided into: 1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)  Controls skeletal muscles (you can move them consciously). 2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)  Controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.  Has two parts:  Sympathetic (fight or flight)  Parasympathetic (rest and digest) Somatic Nervous System   Part of the efferent division.  Function: Controls voluntary movements by sending signals from the CNS to skeletal muscles.  Example: Walking, picking something up, or typing. 21. Explain how a sensory neuron acts as a transducer and describe the difference between general and special senses. Sensory Neuron as a Transducer Transducer = Converts one form of energy into another Sensory neuron: ◦ Detects physical stimuli (light, pressure, heat, etc.) ◦ Converts stimulus into electrical signals (nerve impulses) ◦ Sends signals to CNS (brain/spinal cord) General vs. Special Senses General Senses Found all over the body Use simple receptors Include: ◦ Touch ◦ Pressure ◦ Pain ◦ Temperature ◦ Proprioception (body position) Special Senses Located in specific sensory organs Use complex receptors Include: ◦ Vision (eyes) ◦ Hearing (ears) ◦ Smell (nose) ◦ Taste (tongue) ◦ Balance (inner ear) 22. Identify the receptors of the general senses and describe how they function 1. Mechanoreceptors  Detect: Touch, pressure, vibration, stretch  Function: Respond to physical force or movement 2. Thermoreceptors  Detect: Temperature changes (hot or cold)  Function: Send signals when temperature rises or falls 3. Nociceptors  Detect: Pain (from damage or extreme stimuli)  Function: Respond to harmful stimuli (chemical, mechanical, thermal) 4. Chemoreceptors  Detect: Chemical changes (like pH, CO₂, O₂)  Function: Monitor chemical composition in the body 5. Proprioceptors  Detect: Body position and movement  Function: Help maintain balance and posture by sensing stretch and position 23. Trace the general sensory pathways describing the location of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order neurons and the sensory homunculus. 24. Trace the major somatic motor pathways, and explain the role of the cerebellum in motor control including the location of the motor homunculus, upper motor neuron, and lower motor neuron. Nervous System: Autonomic Nervous System and Higher Order Functions -4 Questions (Martini Chapter 16) 25. Compare the organization and function of the autonomic nervous system with that of the somatic nervous system. 26. Identify the structures and functions of the sy 1. Organization: Feature Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Somatic Nervous System (SNS) Control Involuntary (automatic) Voluntary (conscious control) 2 neurons: Pre-ganglionic and Post- 1 neuron: Directly from CNS to Neurons ganglionic muscle Target Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands Skeletal muscles Organs No branches, direct control of Branches Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems muscles 2. Function: Somatic Nervous System Feature Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (SNS) Regulates automatic functions (e.g., heart Controls voluntary movements Purpose rate, digestion) of muscles Organs like the heart, lungs, digestive Effectors Skeletal muscles system nvoluntary responses (e.g., heart beats Voluntary responses (e.g., Response Type faster) moving arm, walking) Acetylcholine (parasympathetic) and Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine only Norepinephrine (sympathetic) 27. sympathetic division (thoracolumbar) of the autonomic nervous system including the chain ganglia, collateral ganglia, and adrenal medulla.  The sympathetic division is often described as thoracolumbar because it originates from the thoracic and lumbar spinal regions.  The chain ganglia are responsible for quick reflexes and widespread distribution of signals.  Collateral ganglia help regulate internal organs, especially during stress.  The adrenal medulla acts as an endocrine organ, releasing hormones that amplify sympathetic responses. 28. Identify the structures and functions of the parasympathetic division (craniosacral) of the autonomic nervous system.  Function: Promotes the "rest and digest" response, conserving energy and maintaining routine body functions during restful states.  Origin: Neurons originate from the brainstem (cranial nerves) and sacral spinal cord (S2-S4).  Pathway: Involves long pre-ganglionic neurons and short post-ganglionic neurons. 2. Components of the Parasympathetic Division 1. Cranial Nerves (Cranial Part) o Oculomotor (III): Controls pupil constriction and lens accommodation for focusing. o Facial (VII): Stimulates saliva and tear production. o Glossopharyngeal (IX): Stimulates saliva production from the parotid glands. o Vagus (X): Controls heart rate, respiratory rate, and digestion (innervates most thoracic and abdominal organs). 2. Sacral Nerves (Sacral Part) o S2-S4: Provide parasympathetic fibers to the pelvic organs (e.g., bladder, reproductive organs). o Functions to promote urination and digestion. 3. Function of the Parasympathetic Division  Rest and Digest: o Slows down heart rate. o Stimulates digestion (increases peristalsis, secretion of digestive enzymes). o Stimulates urination and defecation. o Constriction of pupils (miosis). o Decreases respiratory rate. 29. Compare and contrast the general functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.  Sympathetic: Prepares the body for action (fight or flight), increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion.  Parasympathetic: Promotes rest, conserves energy, decreases heart rate, constricts pupils, and stimulates digestion. Special Senses -5 Questions (Martini chapter 17) 1. Describe structure and function of olfactory epithelium. Describ Structure:  Located in the upper part of the nasal cavity.  Contains olfactory receptor cells (detect odors), supporting cells, and basal cells (regenerate receptors).   Olfactory glands secrete mucus to trap odorants. Function:  Detects smells: Odorants dissolve in mucus, bind to receptor cells, and trigger signals to the brain.  Sends signals to the olfactory bulb for smell perception.  Connected to the limbic system, influencing emotions and memory. 2. structure and function of gustation receptors.  Location: Found in taste buds on the tongue, soft palate, and throat.  Taste Buds: Contain gustatory receptor cells that detect tastants (chemicals in food).  Function:  Taste detection: Tastants bind to receptors on microvilli of receptor cells.  Signal transmission: Signals are sent to the brain via cranial nerves, resulting in taste perception. 3. Describe the following aspects of vision: a. Retinal image formation b. Stimulation of photoreceptors c. Integration of the visual pathway  Retinal Image Formation involves light focusing on the retina, forming an inverted image.  Photoreceptor Stimulation converts light into electrical signals in the retina, with rods and cones playing different roles.  Visual Pathway Integration sends these signals to the brain for processing and interpretation. 4. Describe the physiology of hearing. 5. Sound Waves: Enter the ear and vibrate the eardrum. 6. Middle Ear: Vibrations are passed through the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), amplifying the sound. 7. Inner Ear: Vibrations are transmitted to the cochlea, where hair cells convert them into electrical signals. 8. Signal Transmission: Signals travel via the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex in the brain for sound processing. 9. Summarize how equilibrium is sensed and contrast static and dynamic equilibrium. 1. Equilibrium Sensing: o Inner ear structures (semicircular canals and otolith organs) detect changes in head position and movement. o Hair cells in these structures send signals to the brain for balance control. 2. Static Equilibrium: o Senses head position relative to gravity.  oReceptors: Otolith organs (utricle and saccule). oStimulus: Movement of otoliths (calcium crystals). 3. Dynamic Equilibrium: o Senses head movement (rotation or linear). o Receptors: Semicircular canals. o Stimulus: Movement of fluid inside the canals during rotation. Endocrine System -15 Questions (Martini Chapter 18) 1. Define endocrine gland, and be able to identify and locate the major endocrine glands of the body on models, diagrams, and specimens. 2 Questions  Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.  Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads, pineal, and thymus. 2. Summarize the mechanisms for intercellular communication used by the cells. 1. Gap Junctions: Direct communication between adjacent cells via channels, allowing small molecules to pass through. 2. Paracrine Signaling: Local signaling where molecules affect nearby cells (e.g., growth factors). 3. Autocrine Signaling: A cell releases signaling molecules that affect itself. 4. Endocrine Signaling: Hormones are released into the bloodstream and act on distant target cells. 5. Synaptic Signaling: Neurons transmit signals across synapses using neurotransmitters. 6. Juxtacrine Signaling: Requires direct cell-to-cell contact using membrane-bound molecules. 3. Compare and contrast endocrine reflexes (hormone release factors): hormonal, humoral, or neural.  Hormonal Reflexes: Hormone release regulated by other hormones.  Humoral Reflexes: Hormone release triggered by blood substance levels.  Neural Reflexes: Hormone release controlled by nerve signals. 4. Identify source, target tissues, actions and regulation of the following hormones: 9 Questions ACTH PTH Cortisol TSH Thyroxine Epinephrine GH Calcitonin Melatonin 1. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone)  Source: Anterior pituitary gland  Target Tissues: Adrenal cortex  Actions: Stimulates the release of cortisol and other glucocorticoids.  Regulation: Released in response to CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus, influenced by stress. 2. PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)  Source: Parathyroid glands  Target Tissues: Bones, kidneys, intestines   Actions: Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, increasing calcium reabsorption in kidneys, and enhancing calcium absorption in the intestines.  Regulation: Released in response to low blood calcium levels; regulated by blood calcium concentration. 3. Cortisol  Source: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)  Target Tissues: Liver, muscles, immune system  Actions: Regulates metabolism (increases glucose), suppresses inflammation, helps the body respond to stress.  Regulation: Stimulated by ACTH; follows a diurnal cycle, highest in the morning. 4. TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)  Source: Anterior pituitary gland  Target Tissues: Thyroid gland  Actions: Stimulates the release of thyroxine (T3) and triiodothyronine (T4) from the thyroid.  Regulation: Released in response to TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus; regulated by blood levels of thyroid hormones. 5. Thyroxine (T4)  Source: Thyroid gland  Target Tissues: Most cells in the body  Actions: Regulates metabolism, growth, and development by increasing energy use.  Regulation: Stimulated by TSH from the pituitary; regulated by blood levels of thyroid hormones. 6. Epinephrine  Source: Adrenal medulla  Target Tissues: Heart, lungs, muscles, and various organs  Actions: Increases heart rate, dilates airways, enhances blood flow to muscles, prepares the body for “fight or flight.”  Regulation: Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system (stress or danger signals). 7. GH (Growth Hormone)  Source: Anterior pituitary gland  Target Tissues: Bones, muscles, liver  Actions: Stimulates growth and development, increases protein synthesis, promotes fat breakdown.  Regulation: Released in response to GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone) and inhibited by somatostatin. 8. Calcitonin  Source: Thyroid gland (C cells)  Target Tissues: Bones, kidneys  Actions: Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption and increasing calcium excretion in the kidneys.  Regulation: Released in response to high blood calcium levels. 9. Melatonin  Source: Pineal gland  Target Tissues: Brain, especially hypothalamus  Actions: Regulates sleep-wake cycles (circadian rhythm).  Regulation: Light exposure (darkness stimulates production); levels are higher at night. 5. Describe how the hypothalamus influences the action of the pituitary gland.  The hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland via hormonal signals (releasing and inhibiting hormones) and neural signals.  It controls the secretion of hormones that regulate various bodily functions such as metabolism, stress response, growth, and reproduction. 6. Explain the phases of the stress response. 1. Alarm Phase: o Immediate "fight or flight" response triggered by stress. o Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy. 2. Resistance Phase: o Ongoing stress leads to cortisol release, sustaining energy and adaptation. o The body tries to cope with the stressor. 3. Exhaustion Phase: o Prolonged stress causes fatigue and immune system suppression. o Can lead to health issues like heart disease and mental health problems.