Psychology Final Exam Review - Key Concepts

50 first dates does not accurately portray which type of memory Short term memory Accommodation vs assimilation assimilation refers to fitting new information into existing mental frameworks (schemas), while accommodation involves modifying existing schemas to accommodate new information Acquiring a...

50 first dates does not accurately portray which type of memory Short term memory Accommodation vs assimilation assimilation refers to fitting new information into existing mental frameworks (schemas), while accommodation involves modifying existing schemas to accommodate new information Acquiring and maintaining a phobia Phobias can be acquired through learning processes like classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is associated with a fear-inducing event, or through operant conditioning, where avoidance behaviors are negatively reinforced. Once a phobia is learned, it can be maintained through continued avoidance of the phobic stimulus, which reinforces the fear response. Adult attachment styles characteristics Secure Attachment: Characteristics: Comfortable with intimacy and independence, able to trust others and form strong, lasting relationships.: Open communication, emotional availability, and good conflict resolution skills.: High self-esteem and a positive view of themselves and others. Anxious Attachment: Characteristics: Fear of abandonment, desire for closeness but difficulty trusting others.: May be overly dependent on partners, seek reassurance, and be prone to jealousy.: Often have low self-esteem and may feel insecure in relationships. 3. Avoidant Attachment: Characteristics: Value independence and may be uncomfortable with intimacy and closeness.: May push partners away, have difficulty expressing emotions, and struggle with conflict resolution. : May have a negative view of others and a dismissive attitude towards close relationships. 4. Disorganized Attachment: Characteristics: A mix of anxiety and avoidance, with a fear of both closeness and abandonment.: May have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships, struggle with emotional regulation, and experience a range of complex emotions: May have a negative view of themselves and others, with difficulty establishing clear boundaries and trust in others. Are introverts antisocial Introverts prefer limited social interaction and need time alone to recharge, while antisocial individuals actively avoid social situations and may show hostility towards others. Introverts typically have empathy and respect social norms, while antisocial individuals may lack empathy and engage in harmful or disruptive behaviors. Are men and women more similar or more different in terms of cognitive ability and leadership Are there major gender differences in personality Asch The Asch Conformity Experiment, conducted by psychologist Solomon Asch in the 1950s, was a study exploring how group pressure influences individual behavior. It demonstrated that people are willing to conform to a group's incorrect judgment, even when the correct answer is obvious, due to social pressure. Bartlett Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia two distinct types of language disorders caused by brain damage, primarily due to stroke or trauma. Broca's aphasia, also known as expressive aphasia, affects the ability to speak fluently, while Wernicke's aphasia, or receptive aphasia, impairs the ability to understand language. Can a theory be falsifiable Yes, a theory can be falsifiable, meaning it's possible to imagine evidence that would prove it incorrect. A theory is considered scientific if it's falsifiable, as this allows for testing and potential refutation, driving scientific progress. Can a theory be proven correct a theory cannot be "proven" in the sense of being definitively and absolutely true. Instead, it's a well-supported explanation of natural phenomena that has been rigorously tested and validated through multiple experiments. Theories are always open to revision or replacement if new evidence contradicts them. Characteristics of introverts and extraverts Introverts are generally energized by spending time alone and prefer quiet, solitary activities, while extroverts are energized by social interactions and prefer being around others. Introverts:  They enjoy spending time alone and find it restorative.  They tend to focus on their inner thoughts and feelings.  They may be quieter and less assertive than extroverts.  They gain energy from their own thoughts and feelings and prefer to recharge by themselves.  They prefer to think about things before expressing their thoughts.   They may have fewer friends but have deeper relationships.  They may find loud or busy environments overwhelming.  They are often highly introspective and possess a strong sense of self- awareness. Extroverts:  They enjoy being around people and thrive on social stimulation.  They are typically talkative, friendly, and enjoy interacting with others.  They are often energized by being around people and may need more social interaction to recharge.  They prefer to discuss things with others or learn by interacting with the world.  They may have many acquaintances and friends.  They can handle busy and noisy environments better than introverts.  They may be more comfortable taking the lead in social situations. Client-centered treatment key components congruence (authenticity), unconditional positive regard (acceptance), and empathic understanding (understanding). Clive wearing could only use what memory procedural memory, or muscle memory. He cannot retain any memories of his own lifetime, but he can still play the piano with great skill. He also recognizes and remembers his wife. Cognitive dissonance definition and examples from class Common treatment methods of treating someone diagnosed with major depressive disorder using the biological perspective medication, brain stimulation therapies, and in some cases, lifestyle changes Conformity definition the tendency of individuals to align their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of a group or social norm Cooperation importance Cooperation refers to the ability of humans to work together toward common goals and is required for survival. Groups with better member cooperation were more likely to survive Criteria for Bipolar I vs Bipolar II disorders Bipolar I Disorder:  Manic Episode: At least one manic episode lasting for at least 7 days, or requires hospitalization, with symptoms like intense elevated mood, heightened energy, and racing thoughts.  Depressive Episode: While not required for diagnosis, major depressive episodes are common.  Severity: Manic episodes in Bipolar I can be severe and may require hospitalization or lead to psychotic features. Bipolar II Disorder:  Hypomanic Episode: At least one hypomanic episode lasting for at least 4 days, with symptoms like elevated mood and increased activity, but not severe enough to cause significant disruption or hospitalization.  Major Depressive Episode: At least one major depressive episode lasting at least 2 weeks.  Severity: Hypomanic episodes in Bipolar II are less severe and don't typically cause significant impairment or require hospitalization. Key Differences: Severity of Manic/Hypomanic Episodes: Bipolar I has more severe manic episodes, while Bipolar II has hypomanic episodes, which are less intense. Presence of Major Depressive Episode: While Bipolar I may or may not have major depressive episodes, Bipolar II requires at least one major depressive episode for diagnosis. Define fear vs anxiety Fear is the response to a perceived threat, while anxiety involves worry about a threat that has not yet, or may never, happen. Describe the existential perspective of psychology emphasizes the importance of individual's subjective experience, freedom, and responsibility in shaping meaning and purpose in life. It focuses on the individual's capacity for self-awareness, confronting life's fundamental questions, and making authentic choices. Describe the humanistic approach to understanding human behavior focuses on a person's subjective experiences, emphasizing free will, self- actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals. It views human behavior as self-determined and seeks to understand individuals within their unique context. Key figures in this approach include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Describe the importance of the myelination process myelination, the process of forming a fatty layer (myelin sheath) around nerve axons, is crucial in psychology because it directly influences the speed and efficiency of neural communication, impacting cognitive functions like learning, memory, and executive functions. Do we have distinct learning styles No just prefrences Effects of memory retrieval on subsequent memories Memory retrieval has a multifaceted impact on subsequent memories, influencing both strengthening and weakening of related information. Retrieval practice, the act of actively recalling information, can enhance long-term retention and improve the accuracy of future retrieval. However, retrieving specific information can also lead to the forgetting of related details, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting. Additionally, post-retrieval events like stress can alter the accessibility of future memories. Ego defense mechanisms-sublimation, identification, projection, rationalization Ego defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety or conflict. These mechanisms include sublimation, identification, projection, and rationalization, among others. 1. Sublimation: This involves channeling unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable and constructive activities. For example, someone with aggressive tendencies might channel their anger into a sport like boxing. 2. Identification: This defense mechanism involves adopting the characteristics or behaviors of another person or group to increase self-esteem or reduce anxiety. For example, a child might identify with a parent or a role model. 3. Projection: This mechanism involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to another person. For example, someone who is jealous might accuse their partner of being jealous. 4. Rationalization: This defense mechanism involves making up logical explanations for unacceptable behaviors, feelings, or thoughts to reduce feelings of guilt or anxiety. For example, a student might rationalize cheating on a test by saying they didn't think the material was important. Elliott Eugenics “test” Examples of group polarization Group polarization in psychology refers to the phenomenon where the opinions of individuals within a group become more extreme than their initial individual opinions after group discussion. This means that if a group starts with a relatively moderate view on an issue, they may, after discussing it, become more strongly in favor or against  Online Communities: On social media platforms, people often engage with those who share similar views, and discussions can lead to the reinforcement and amplification of their initial opinions, making them more extreme.  Sports Fan Groups: Fans discussing their team's performance against a rival might become more ardent supporters of their team and more critical of the rival team after the discussion.  Political Discussions: People with moderate views on a political issue might, after discussing it with like- minded individuals, become more strongly committed to their side of the issue. Experimental vs control groups the experimental group receives the treatment or intervention being tested, while the control group does not, serving as a baseline for comparison. Experimental vs correlational studies Experimental studies manipulate variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships, while correlational studies observe naturally occurring relationships between variables without manipulation, Explicit vs implicit memories Explicit memories are conscious recollections of facts and events, like remembering a specific date or the plot of a movie. Implicit memories, on the other hand, are unconscious and influence our behavior without explicit recall, such as knowing how to ride a bike or being primed by a word Function of each cerebral hemisphere Left Hemisphere (Dominant):  Language: Responsible for speech production, comprehension, and written language.  Logic and Reasoning: Involved in analytical thinking, problem-solving, and mathematical calculations.  Sequential Tasks: Coordinates steps in a logical order, such as reading or playing a musical instrument.  Motor Control (Right Side): Controls voluntary movements on the right side of the body. Right Hemisphere (Non-Dominant):  Spatial Reasoning: Handles visual-spatial processing, including navigating, recognizing faces, and understanding depth perception.  Creativity and Imagination: Associated with artistic abilities, musical skills, and intuitive thinking.  Emotional Processing: Plays a role in recognizing and expressing emotions, particularly negative ones.  Motor Control (Left Side): Controls voluntary movements on the left side of the body.  Non-Verbal Communication: Interprets body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. Key Points:  Lateralization: While there's a general dominance, both hemispheres work together and can perform functions from either side, especially for complex tasks.  Individual Variation: The extent of specialization can vary between individuals.  Corpus Callosum: This band of nerve fibers connects the two hemispheres, allowing for communication and coordination. Function of the cerebellum The cerebellum's primary function is to coordinate and refine motor movements, including balance, posture, and gait. It also plays a role in motor learning, where it helps refine and improve learned movements over time. Beyond motor control, the cerebellum is increasingly recognized for its involvement in various cognitive functions like attention, language, and emotional processing Function of the cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the cerebrum, is responsible for higher- order cognitive functions, including voluntary movement, language, thinking, reasoning, and learning. It is divided into several lobes, each with specialized functions, including the frontal lobe (motor control, planning, and personality), parietal lobe (sensory input integration), occipital lobe (visual processing), and temporal lobe (auditory processing and memory). Function of the corpus callosum The corpus callosum's primary function is to facilitate communication between the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to share information and coordinate functions. It acts as a bridge, enabling the transfer of sensory, motor, and cognitive information between the left and right sides of the brain. Function of the frontal lobes The frontal lobes are crucial for higher-level cognitive functions, including voluntary movement, expressive language, and executive functions like planning, organizing, and self-monitoring Function of the occipital lobes The frontal lobes are crucial for higher-level cognitive functions, including voluntary movement, expressive language, and executive functions like planning, organizing, and self-monitoring Function of the parietal lobes The parietal lobes are primarily responsible for sensory processing, spatial awareness, and integrating sensory information. Function of the temporal lobes The temporal lobes are primarily responsible for hearing, language comprehension, memory formation, and some visual processing. Gage Phineas Gage's case is a famous example in psychology, particularly in the study of the brain and behavior. It highlights the connection between the brain's frontal lobes and personality, emotions, and social interactions. Gage's accident, which caused significant damage to his frontal lobes, led to a dramatic change in his personality and behavior.  The Accident: In 1848, Gage, a construction foreman, had a tamping iron driven through his skull, causing severe damage to his frontal lobes.  Personality Changes: Before the accident, Gage was known as responsible and hardworking. After the accident, he was described as impulsive, irritable, and unable to follow through with plans.  Scientific Significance: Gage's case was one of the first pieces of evidence suggesting that damage to the frontal lobes could alter personality and social behavior. Hall Harlow the Harry Harlow theory stated that the need for a mother's love is not physical, but rather, emotional. The Harlow monkey experiment also showed that the younger the child, the more crucial the need for comfort. As the child ages, their capacity for attachment wanes. James Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established the philosophical school known as pragmatism, and is also cited as one of the founders of functional psychology. also known as the James-Lange theory, proposes that emotions occur as a mental reaction to the physiological conditions that result from a stimulus. Different physiological reactions are responsible for different kinds of emotions. Key feature of current psychotherapy emphasis on evidence-based practices and a collaborative, relational approach. This means that therapists use treatments supported by research, and work in partnership with clients to develop personalized treatment plans. The goal is to help individuals gain insight, develop coping skills, and foster positive changes in their lives. Learning definition learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, or abilities that results from experience. This change is considered permanent if it's not merely a temporary state caused by fatigue, motivation, or drugs, but rather a lasting alteration in the way an individual thinks, acts, or feels. Maslow Abraham Maslow was a prominent American psychologist known for his hierarchy of needs, a motivational theory that suggests individuals are motivated by a set of needs, starting with basic physiological needs and progressing to higher-level needs like safety, belonging, esteem, and ultimately, self-actualization. This theory is often visualized as a pyramid, with the most fundamental needs at the base. humanistic psychology, MBTI a self-report personality questionnaire designed to identify personality preferences based on Carl Jung's theory of psychological types. It assesses an individual's preferences in four dichotomous scales: Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I), Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N), Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F), and Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P). These preferences combine to create 16 distinct personality types. Medulla function regulate essential involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and digestive processes. It also plays a role in coordinating automatic responses like swallowing and coughing. Methods to avoid demand characteristics Deception involves hiding the true purpose of the study from participants. Double- blind designs ensure neither the participants nor the experimenters know which group is receiving the treatment. Implicit measures use indirect or hidden ways to assess variables, reducing the likelihood that participants can guess the hypothesis. Milgram’s findings a surprising tendency for people to obey authority, even when the orders conflict with their own moral judgment. Miller suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to approximately 5 to 9 "chunks" of information. This is often referred to as the "magical number seven, plus or minus two". A chunk can be any meaningful unit of information, such as a word, a group of numbers, or even a sentence MMPI The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a widely used psychological test that helps assess personality and psychopathology. It's a self- report questionnaire used by mental health professionals to evaluate various psychological conditions, including depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. The MMPI is also used in forensic settings, like criminal defense and custody disputes, Obedience definition obedience refers to a form of social influence where individuals yield to explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure. It's distinct from compliance, which can involve positive responses to another person's request, and conformity, which is adjusting behavior to fit in with a group. Objective vs projective personality assessments Objective tests use structured questions with limited answer options, while projective tests rely on ambiguous stimuli and interpretation to reveal underlying personality traits. Punishment vs reinforcement-which is more effective in teaching a behavior Reinforcement, particularly positive reinforcement, is generally more effective than punishment in teaching desired behavior. Positive reinforcement, which involves rewarding a behavior, increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. While punishment can suppress a behavior temporarily, it often fails to teach alternative behaviors and can have negative emotional consequences. Random assignment vs random selection andom selection is about drawing a sample from a larger population, while random assignment is about placing participants into different groups or treatments within a study. R Rayner Reflex arc A reflex arc is the neural pathway that enables rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli, often bypassing the brain for faster reaction times. These arcs involve a sequence of components, including a sensory receptor, sensory neuron, integration center (often the spinal cord), motor neuron, and effector (like a muscle). Reliability vs validity Reliability refers to the consistency and repeatability of a measurement, while validity refers to how accurately a measurement reflects what it is intended to measure Rogers and Gloria there needs to be congruence between the real self and the ideal self. Rogers believed self-actualization was something every individual was seeking. Self- actualization is when an individual achieves their full potential. Strange Situation styles Secure Attachment: Infants with secure attachment are confident explorers when their caregiver is present and exhibit distress when the caregiver leaves, but are easily comforted upon their return. They use their caregiver as a secure base to explore their environment and are happy to see their caregiver return. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infants with avoidant attachment show little distress when the caregiver leaves and avoid or ignore them upon return, indicating a lack of emotional connection. They may not explore very much and treat the stranger similarly to the caregiver. Insecure-Resistant (Anxious-Ambivalent) Attachment: These infants display intense distress upon separation and are ambivalent or resistant to their caregiver upon return, possibly struggling to be comforted. They may rush to the caregiver but resist contact, potentially even pushing them away. Disorganized Attachment: Infants with disorganized attachment exhibit inconsistent or contradictory behaviors, sometimes approaching the caregiver but freezing or falling to the floor. They may call for the caregiver while simultaneously backing away, suggesting a fear-based response. Systematic desensitization a behavior therapy technique used to treat phobias and anxiety by gradually exposing individuals to their feared stimuli while simultaneously teaching relaxation techniques to counter their anxiety responses. Test for object permanence determines if a child understands that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Piaget's famous tests involve hiding an object and observing if the child searches for it. If the child looks for the object, they are demonstrating object permanence. The classical conditioning experiments of Pavlov, Watson & Rayner were based on what the principle of associative learning, where organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together. This means a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) can become associated with a naturally occurring stimulus (e.g., food), and eventually the neutral stimulus alone can elicit a similar response (e.g., salivation Theme of current psychotherapy empowering clients to develop skills and tools for managing life's challenges, shifting away from solely seeking deeper insight Theory vs hypothesis a hypothesis is a testable, tentative explanation for an observation, while a theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomenon that is based on multiple lines of evidence and rigorous testing Thorndike prominent American psychologist known for his work on learning, particularly his "law of effect" and "connectionism" theories. He is also considered a foundational figure in educational psychology. His research, often involving animal subjects like cats, explored how behaviors are learned through their consequences Watson john B. Watson's theory of behaviorism, also known as radical behaviorism, posits that psychology should focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes like thoughts and feelings. He argued that all behaviors, including complex ones like emotions and thoughts, are learned through conditioning, which involves the association of stimuli and responses. Watson's theory emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior and suggests that individuals can be trained to behave in certain ways through manipulation of stimul What is the focus of psychoanalysis and psychodynamic theories Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic theories focus on the unconscious mind and its influence on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. They emphasize the importance of early childhood experiences and the impact of unconscious conflicts and drives on personality development and psychological problems. When is the brain fully matured-ages and functions when matured the human brain continues to develop and mature into the mid-to-late 20s, with key areas like the prefrontal cortex not fully developed until around age 25. This ongoing development involves both structural growth and the strengthening of neural pathways, impacting cognitive abilities like planning, decision-making, and emotional regulation. Why do people fail to get treatment stigma, lack of knowledge, financial barriers, and a perceived lack of need for treatment. Working memory function and location Working memory is a cognitive process that allows us to temporarily hold and manipulate information in our minds. It's crucial for tasks like understanding instructions, solving problems, and making decisions. While many brain regions are involved, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, is considered a central hub for working memory. Zimbardo The Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University in 1971, was a controversial study exploring the psychological effects of power and authority in a simulated prison environment. Twenty-four male college students were randomly assigned to be either "guards" or "prisoners" and the study was intended to last two weeks. However, it was terminated after just six days due to the extreme and escalating psychological distress experienced by both the "prisoners" and the "guards".