Ethics Introduction PDF

ETHICS: INTRODUCTION 1. It is a branch of philosophy that is a Etymological meaning: philosophical enterprise that investigates Philosophy comes from the Greek words Philia and questions the way or the na...

ETHICS: INTRODUCTION 1. It is a branch of philosophy that is a Etymological meaning: philosophical enterprise that investigates Philosophy comes from the Greek words Philia and questions the way or the nature of (Love) and Sophia (Wisdom). human actions, see if it has a ground so Thus, Philosophy is love of wisdom. that it supports its own moral claim. ➔ A Code of ethics is a set of ethical guidelines that is universally The first philosophers came from ancient recognized. Greek civilization. They asked: a. What makes us all connected to each other? 2. Ethics investigates or studies morality. b. What makes us one? ➔ Thus, the term ethics is expressed in c. What underlies everything that exists? various ways of understanding and examining the moral life of the person as it is cited by Beauchamp Metaphysics and Childress (1994). Epistemology Logic 3. Ethics = Is not just any action of man, Axiology rather, an action that is geared towards ○ Aesthetics what is considered moral, namely, human ○ Ethics action. ➔ The Latin word mos or moris (and its plural mores) from which the adjective ➔ From the Latin moralitas which means moral is derived is equivalent to ethos. "manner, character, proper behavior“. ➔ Taken from the Greek word “ethos” which ➔ It is the conduct or rules that a person or means ‘customs’, ‘usage’ ‘characteristic’. community adheres to. ➔ Etymologically, Ethics is but a survey of ➔ Morals refer mainly to guiding principles, patterns of behavior that is done by in some sense, obligatory. It gives us rules human beings in particular or a society in for everyday life, and it is practical. general. ➔ Examples: ➔ Generally speaking, is about matters such ◆ Being honest, as the good thing that we should ◆ Respecting others pursue and the bad thing that we ◆ Keeping a promise should avoid; the right ways in which we could or should act, and the wrong ways of acting. It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. It may ➔ Refers to specific rules and actions, or involve obligations. behaviors, sometimes a critical reflection of ➔ Ethics as a subject is about determining the “morals”. grounds for the values with particular ➔ It is also a philosophical reflection about and special significance to human life. the nature of the good life, of right action, of duty and obligation. It is theoretical.  happen naturally in the body, without a ➔ Examples: person's being conscious about them. ◆ I have in mind the key golden rule: ➔ Acts of Human is neither right or wrong. “Don't do to others what you don't want others to do unto you.” ◆ I wonder what is more important: Breathing the intention that inspires an act or Beating of the heart the results that we obtain from it. Perspiration ◆ I reflect on values, wondering if the Growing of the hair value of authenticity is better than Growing of the nails the value of friendship. ➔ Amoral or Indifferent actions 1. NORMATIVE ETHICS - This branch deals with how individuals can know the correct moral action they should take. Philosophers - such as Socrates and John ➔ These are actions that require a person to Stuart Mill - are included in this branch of make a choice, use utmost responsibility, ethics. and use his/her conscience. 2. MORAL ETHICS - This branch questions ➔ Human Acts can either be right or wrong. how individuals develop their morality, why certain aspects of morality differ between cultures, and why certain aspects of Telling the truth morality are generally universal Giving money to the poor 3. META-ETHICS - This branch seeks to Returning a lost item understand the nature of ethical properties and judgments, such as if truth values can be found and the theory behind ➔ Good action moral principles ➔ Bad action 4. APPLIED ETHICS - This is the study of applying theories from philosophers regarding ethics in everyday life. For example, this area of ethics asks questions such as "Is it right to have an abortion?" and "Should you turn in your friend at your workplace for taking home office supplies?" 5. DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS - This branch is more scientific in its approach and focuses on how human beings operate in the real world, rather than attempting to theorize about how they should operate. ➔ These are processes that do not require a decision-making action from a person. They SOURCES OF AUTHORITY ➔ Cultural relativism (aesthetic differences, religious differences , etiquette differences.) ➔ Origin: Derived from societal norms, legal ➔ “We are in no position to judge whether systems, religious doctrines, or cultural the ethical thought or practice of another traditions. culture is acceptable or unacceptable” ➔ Influence: Guides behavior through external rules, regulations, or expectations, often driven by fear of punishment or societal approval. ➔ Rachels defines Cultural Relativism as ➔ Law, Religion, and Culture the position that claims that there is no such thing as objective truth in the realm of morality. ➔ The argument of this position is that since ➔ Origin: Stems from an individual's values, different cultures have different moral conscience, and sense of morality. codes, then there is no one correct ➔ Influence: Guides behavior based on moral code that all cultures must personal convictions, moral values, and follow. ethical beliefs, driven by an internal moral ➔ The Eskimos also seemed to care less about compass. human life. Infanticide, for example, was ➔ Subjectivism, Psychological egoism, and common. Ethical egoism ◆ Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer, reported meeting one woman who had borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them at birth. ◆ Female babies, he found, were ➔ Law refers to a system of rules, especially likely to be killed, and regulations, and principles established by a this was permitted at the parents’ governing authority (such as a discretion, with no social stigma government) to regulate the behavior of attached. individuals and groups within a society. ◆ Moreover, when elderly family ➔ Note: Not all legal is moral, and not all members became too feeble, they moral is legal. were left out in the snow to die. ◆ Abortion may be permitted by law in ➔ Female Circumcision in some Filipino the United States, but the Catholic tribes. Church considers it immoral. ➔ ◆ Expressing one's opinions freely is ➔ Rachels posits three ABSURD against the law in North Korea, but it CONSEQUENCES of accepting the claim of is generally considered morally right. cultural relativism: 1. First, if cultural relativism was correct, then one cannot criticize ➔ Multiplicity of religion. the practices or beliefs of ➔ Polygamy is considered morally acceptable another culture anymore as long in Islam but is deemed immoral in as that culture thinks that what it is Christianity. doing is correct. ➔ Eating dinuguan is considered immoral by But if that is the case, then the certain religions but not by Catholics. Jews, for example, cannot criticize  the Nazis’ plan to exterminate all Jews in World War II, since ➔ Rachels argued against cultural relativism, obviously, the Nazis believed that which is the idea that moral beliefs are they were doing the right thing. entirely determined by one's culture, and there are no universal moral truths. 2. Secondly, if cultural relativism was ➔ He believed that this view could lead to correct, then one cannot even moral stagnation as it discourages criticize the practices or beliefs of questioning & moral progress. If individuals one’s own culture. unquestioningly accept their cultural moral If that is the case, the black South beliefs, they may fail to recognize and African citizens under the system of correct morally problematic aspects of their apartheid, a policy of racial culture. segregation that privileges the dominant race in a society, could not criticize that official state position. 3. Thirdly, if cultural relativism was ➔ “The starting point of subjectivism is the correct, then one cannot even recognition that the individual thinking accept that moral progress can person (the subject) is at the heart of all happen. moral valuations.” If that is the case, then the fact that ➔ “The individual is the sole determinant many societies now recognize of what is morally good or bad, right or women’s rights and children’s wrong.” rights does not necessarily represent ➔ Senses of the self: a better situation than before when ◆ “No one can tell me what is right societies refused to recognize that and wrong”. women and children even had ◆ “No one knows my situation better rights. than myself”. ◆ “I am entitled to my own opinion”. ➔ Rachels believed that moral progress is ◆ “It is good if I say that it is good”. possible and that societies can improve their moral standards over time. Accepting moral beliefs without questioning ➔ “Human beings are naturally them can hinder this progress because self-centered, so all our actions are it may prevent individuals from challenging always already motivated by self-interest.” and revising outdated or harmful moral ➔ All People are Selfish in Everything They Do norms. ➔ No culture, whether in the present world or in the past, would promote murder instead of prohibiting it. ➔ We should make our own ends, our own ➔ A hypothetical culture that promotes murder interest, as the single overriding concern. would immediately cease to exist because ➔ An act is right for a person to perform if the members would start murdering each and only if that act is in the person’s best other. interest. ➔ We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us. SOURCES OF AUTHORITY PT.2 This problem or dilemma presents two questions to ponder. 1. An action is morally right because God ➔ It is a moral guide that is relevant to the commanded them? criminal and civil codes. Or ➔ CONSTITUTION 2. An action is commanded by God ◆ Law passed by the Congress because it is morally right? ◆ Presidential Decree and Executive Orders ◆ LGU Ordinances ◆ Rules and Regulations ◆ Customary Laws ➔ The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual thinking ➔ Group sharing beliefs, behaviors, objects, person (the subject) is at the heart of all and other characteristics. moral valuations. ➔ Culture is meant to be shared ➔ ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM: ◆ The basic thought of Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our ➔ In the major theistic traditions, including feelings and nothing more. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ◆ In other words, what is morally right ➔ God is conceived as a lawgiver who has or wrong is determined by an laid down rules that we are to obey. individual's personal feelings, ➔ He does not compel us to obey them. We opinions, or cultural norms. were created as free agents, so we may choose to accept or to reject his commandments. But if we are to live as ➔ Egoism is an ethical theory that asserts that we should live, we must follow God’s laws. individuals should act in their ➔ This conception has been elaborated by self-interest and seek to maximize their some theologians into a theory about the own well-being or happiness. It is a nature of right and wrong known as the self-centered ethical perspective. Divine Command Theory. ➔ PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM: ➔ Essentially, this theory says that morally ◆ Human beings are naturally right means commanded by God and self-centered, so all our actions are morally wrong means forbidden by God. always already motivated by ➔ This theory has a number of attractive self-interest. features. It immediately solves the old ◆ This theory describes the problem about the objectivity of underlying dynamic behind all ethics. Ethics is not merely a matter of human actions. As a descriptive personal feeling or social custom. Whether theory, it does not direct one to act something is right or wrong is perfectly in any particular way. objective: It is right if God commands it, wrong if God forbids it.  ◆ Instead, it points out that there is LAWRENCE KOHLBERG AND HIS already an underlying basis for how one acts. STAGES OF MORAL ◆ The ego or self has its desires and DEVELOPMENT interests, and all our actions are geared toward satisfying these interests. ➔ A professor of psychology in Harvard University is a prominent moral development theorist, but his thinking grew ➔ Ethical egoism differs from psychological out of Jean Piaget’s writing on children’s egoism in that it does not suppose all our intellectual development. His theory is actions are already inevitably self-serving. descriptive rather than proven facts. ➔ Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that we ➔ Lawrence Kohlberg’s idea of the stages of should make our own ends, our own moral development could be understood interest, as the single overriding as a process through which we develop concern. proper attitudes and behaviors toward other ➔ We may act in a way that is beneficial to people in society, based on social and others, but we should do that only if it cultural norms, rules and laws. Before we ultimately benefits us. proceed, we must understand how Kohlberg ➔ Major advocates of Egoism created her own differentiates morals and values. ethical theory name Objectivism is Ayn ➔ Kohlberg defines morals as society’s way Rand of telling right from wrong, while values ◆ Many works such as “Atlas are a more individual way of identifying Shrugged” and “The Fountain Head” and judging right from wrong. ◆ “Can't say the word “I love you” ➔ He believed that moral growth occurs without saying I first” through interaction with one’s environment, and progresses through defined stages. ➔ "A Free Man's Worship,“ - Bertrand ➔ Furthermore, Kohlberg states that moving Russell through the stages is not a product of ➔ Described this scientific view of the world as maturity and that new forms of thinking one where human existence is the and the movement through stages cannot result of random processes, with no be taught. inherent purpose. According to this view, ➔ Development through stages is created life's hopes, fears, and beliefs are from our own thinking about moral outcomes of chance events, and nothing problems. Social experiences promote can extend an individual's life beyond death. development, but they do so by stimulating ➔ Russell suggests that all human our mental processes. Discussions and achievements are ultimately destined to debates with others question and challenge be forgotten in the vastness of a universe our views and we are therefore motivated that will eventually decay. to come up with new, more comprehensive ➔ This perspective, while not universally positions. accepted, challenges the idea of a higher purpose and underscores the idea of confronting the apparent meaninglessness of existence. STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT ➔ In Kohlberg’s reasoning, people who merely follow the rules and regulations of their institution, the laws of their community or state, the doctrine of ➔ Morality is based on avoiding punishment. their religion—even if they seem to be the ➔ Based on avoiding punishment, a focus on truly right thing to do—are trapped in this the consequences of actions rather than second or conventional level, which is intentions; an intrinsic deference to still not yet the highest. authority. ➔ Morality involves pursuing one's own interests while respecting others' interests. ➔ Morality transcends individual ➔ The “right” behaviors are those that are in perspectives and considers societal best interest of oneself; tit for tat agreements and individual rights. mentality. ➔ Begin to learn other’s have different ➔ A moral perspective characterized by the values; realization that law is contingent on principle of "an eye for an eye, and a tooth culture. for a tooth" is based on a retaliatory or retributive approach to justice. ➔ Gandhi and Jesus Christ transcended Stage 2 rather than being confined to it. ➔ Morality is guided by universal ethical ➔ “You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours” principles, even if they conflict with ◆ A reciprocal arrangement where I societal laws or rules. help you if you help me. ➔ Develop internal moral principles; individual ◆ I will reciprocate because I begin to obey these above the law. anticipate receiving a reward or benefit in return. 1. PUNISHMENT & OBEDIENCE: ➔ “I want to avoid punishment.” 2. INDIVIDUAL & INSTRUMENTAL EXCHANGE: ➔ “I want to have a reward or in ➔ Morality is defined by social approval, exchange of something.” maintaining relationships, and conforming 3. MUTUAL & INTERPERSONAL CONFORMITY: to societal expectations. ➔ ”To gain the approval of ➔ “Good boy/ Good girl” attitude, sees others.” individuals as filling social roles. 4. LAW & ORDER: ➔ “It is according to the law and rules.” ➔ Morality is about following laws and upholding social order. 5. SOCIAL CONTRACT & INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS: ➔ Law and order as highest ideals, social ➔ “It will be for the common obedience is a must to maintaining a good.” functional society.  6. UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES: STAGE 3: ➔ “It is the good thing to do.” “I will not because my colleagues would no longer respect me if they knew I have done that.” ➔ Is seen in an agent who acts on what she STAGE 4: has understood, using her full “I will not because it is against the law and rationality, to be what is right, the professional should obey the law.” regardless of whether the act will bring the agent pleasure or pain and even regardless STAGE 5: of whether the act is in accordance with YES: “Because no one benefits from one’s community’s laws or not. keeping individuals alive longer than they want to live.” NO: “Even though the patient might suffer ➔ According to Gilligan (1977), because less, we need to be faithful to our respect Kohlberg’s theory was based on an for life otherwise we might lose our all-male sample, the stages reflect a male standards and abuse it.” definition of morality (it’s androcentric). Mens' morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice, while STAGE 6: womens' is based on principles of YES: “The decision to exit life is such a compassion and care. serious one that it needs to be honored if it is made reasonably’.” NO: “Because I personally believe that no one has a right to take his or her own life A nurse and the physician are caring for a and so I cannot be a part of such action.” terminally ill man and that the man is in great pain who is asking the doctor and the nurse for enough barbiturates to commit suicide. ➔ Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular What are the appropriate responses that the health type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug care provider will take based on the moral might save her. The drug had been development of Kohlberg? discovered by a local chemist, and Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the STAGE 1: chemist was charging ten times the money “I will not do it because I could lose my it cost to make the drug, and this was much license if anybody finds out I have done more than Heinz could afford. that.” ➔ Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He STAGE 2: explained to the chemist that his wife was “I will not do it because if I became known dying and asked if he could have the drug as a doctor or perhaps a nurse who did that cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. kind of thing then other doctors or nurses ➔ The chemist refused, saying that he had might not refer patients to me.” discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife so he was thinking that  night to break into the chemist’s house and Heinz should not steal the medicine steal the drug. because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it STAGE 1 (OBEDIENCE): does not make his actions right. Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth $200 and not how much the STAGE 6 (UNIVERSAL-HUMAN-ETHICS): druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even Heinz should steal the medicine, because offered to pay for it and was not stealing saving a human life is a more fundamental anything else. value than the property rights of another Heinz should not steal the medicine person. because he will consequently be put in Heinz should not steal the medicine, prison which will mean he is a bad person. because others may need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally STAGE 2 (SELF-INTEREST): significant. Heinz should steal the medicine because he would feel gratified and happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. ETHICAL DILEMMA Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would more likely languish in a jail cell than ➔ It is also known as moral dilemmas. over his wife’s death. These are situations in which there is a choice to be made between two STAGE 3 (CONFORMITY): options, neither of which resolves the Heinz should steal the medicine because situation in an ethically acceptable fashion. his wife expects it; he wants to be a good ➔ In such cases, societal and personal ethical husband. guidelines can provide no satisfactory Heinz should not steal the drug because outcome for the chooser. stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he has tried to do everything he can without breaking the law, you cannot blame him. 1. GATHER THE FACTS STAGE 4 (LAW-AND-ORDER): ➔ Frequently, ethical dilemmas can be Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but resolved simply by clarifying the facts of also take the prescribed punishment for the the case in question. In those cases that crime as well as paying the druggist what prove to be more difficult, gathering the he is owed. Criminals cannot just run facts is the essential first step prior to any around without regard for the law; actions ethical analysis and reflection on the case. have consequences. ➔ In analyzing a case, we want to know the Heinz should not steal the medicine available facts at hand as well as any facts because the law prohibits stealing, making currently not known but that need to be it illegal. ascertained. ➔ Thus one is asking not only “What do we STAGE 5 (SOCIAL-CONTRACT-ORIENTATION): know?” but also “What do we need to Heinz should steal the medicine because know?” in order to make an intelligent everyone has a right to choose life, ethical decision. regardless of the law.  ➔ In addition, you may come up with some 2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES very creative alternatives that you had not ➔ The ethical issues are stated in terms of considered before. competing interests or goods. It’s these conflicting interests that actually make for 5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH an ethical dilemma. THE PRINCIPLES ➔ The issues should be presented in a ➔ At this point, the task is eliminating one “______ versus _______” format in of alternatives according to the moral order to reflect the interests that are principles that have a bearing on the case. colliding in a particular ethical dilemma. ➔ In many instances, the case will be resolved ➔ For example, in business ethics there is at this point, since the principles will often a conflict between the right of a firm eliminate all alternatives except one. In fact, to make profit and its obligation to the the purpose of this comparison is to see if community. In this case, the obligation there is a clear decision that can be made pertains to the environment without further deliberations. ➔ If a clear decision is not forthcoming, then 3. WHAT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE A the next part is the model that must be BEARING ON THE CASE considered. At the least, some of the ➔ In any ethical dilemma, there are certain alternatives may be eliminated by this step moral values or principles that are central of comparison. to the conflicting positions being taken. It is critical to identify these principles, and in 6. WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES some cases, to determine whether some ➔ If the principles do not yield a clear principles are to be weighted more decision, then a consideration of the heavily than others. consequences of the remaining available ➔ Clearly, biblical principles will be alternatives is in order. weighted the most heavily. There may be ➔ Both positive and negative other principles that speak to the case that consequences are to be considered. They come from other sources. There may be should be informally weighed, since some constitutional principles or principles drawn positive consequences are more detrimental from natural law that supplement the than others. biblical principles that come into play here. ➔ The principles that come out of your 7. MAKE A DECISION mission and calling are also important to ➔ Deliberations cannot go on forever. At some consider. point, a decision must be made. ➔ Realize that one common element in ethical 4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES dilemmas is that there are no easy and ➔ Part of the creative thinking involved in painless solutions to them. resolving an ethical dilemma involves ➔ Frequently the decision that is made is one coming up with various alternative that involves the least number of courses of action. problems or negative consequences, not ➔ Although there will be some alternatives one that is devoid of them. that you will rule out without much thought, in general the more alternatives that are listed, the better the chance that your list will include some high-quality ones.