Analyzing Teachers' Dispositions towards Diversity Using Adult Development Theory PDF

Research Analyzing Teachers’ Dispositions towards Diversity: Using Adult Development Theory...

Research Analyzing Teachers’ Dispositions towards Diversity: Using Adult Development Theory Jody L. Eberly, Murial K. Rand, & Terry O’Connor Why do some teachers demonstrate dispositions stem from an underlying (3) has the basic ability to follow through great cultural sensitivity in their work psychological meaning-making structure with the behavior, for instance, he or she with children while others seem mired in and that we need a deeper understanding can actually identify pro and con reasons stereotypes, perpetuating a view of diversi- of that structure so that we can identify the for both sides of an argument. ty as exotic or denying that race is an issue developmental level of our students’ dis- We believe these conceptions of dispo- in their classrooms? Why is it so difficult positional thinking and therefore provide sitions are inadequate in that they focus to change these dispositions of teachers? learning environments that support stu- only on surface behavioral characteristics. And what can we do in teacher education dents’ growth in changing dispositions. Variation in responses, especially to in- to further the cultural responsiveness we The term disposition traditionally struction in dispositions, cannot be con- claim we want teachers to develop? refers to the tendency or propensity to sistently explained at this level. In order Dispositions of teachers strongly affect respond in specific ways to particular to understand dispositions more deeply we the impact they have on student learning circumstances. The philosopher, Ryle, need to examine the psychological mean- and development (Collinson, et al., 1999; writing in 1949, suggested that to possess ing-making system that underlies and Combs, Blume, Newman, & Wass, 1974). a dispositional property “is not to be in a holds together the behavioral characteris- Recent research has lead to dispositions particular state, or to undergo a particular tics that these researchers have identified. playing a prominent role in the accredita- change; it is to be bound or liable to be in Kegan states: tion of teacher education programs, includ- a particular state, or undergo a particular What is it we want of our students? One ing the requirement to effectively measure change, when a particular condition is answer is that it is a behavior, a way of dispositions of teacher candidates (NCATE, realized” (Ryle, 1949). acting. But a little reflection reveals that 2000). The National Board for Professional Therefore, Ryle explains, glass might it is more than a behavior we want. We are Teaching Standards (2001) also requires have a brittle disposition even if it is not also asking for a certain attitude. We don’t teachers to demonstrate dispositions and broken into pieces at a given moment. Or a want them to do the right thing for what- the standards are rife with the language person can have the disposition to criticize, ever reason. We want them to do so out of given the right condition, but not exhibit their feelings for others. The “something” of dispositions: value, belief, commitment, we want is for them to feel differently passion. There is less consensus however, it all the time. Salomon (1994) describes a about others, their willingness to help, and on the particular dispositions associated disposition as a cluster of preferences, at- their responsibility towards others. What with effective teaching, or on the role that titudes, and intentions, but also adds that seemed to be a claim about outer behavior dispositions might play in the educational the concept includes a set of capabilities appears to really be expectations about reform movement (McKnight, 2004). that allow the preferences to become real- inner feelings. And where do these feelings In this research, we try to address ized in a particular way. come from? They come from the way they these questions by using the adult devel- Other researchers have offered a con- understand what the world is all about, the ception of dispositions that includes three way they know. In order to change the feel- opmental theory of Robert Kegan (1998) ings and the behaviors they cause, we are to analyze the foundation of the disposi- aspects (Perkins, Jay, & Tishman, 1993). therefore expecting that they change the tions teachers bring to issues of racial They use the example of “thinking dispo- way they know; we expect them to change and cultural diversity. We believe that sitions” to show that the basic underlying their consciousness. (1998,16-17) psychology has three components which are Jody L. Eberly is an assistant professor necessary to induce dispositional behavior. To examine this deeper conceptualization in the Department of Elementary These three elements are: (1) sensitivity: of dispositions, we looked at how research- and Early Childhood Education the perception of the appropriateness of a ers have previously assessed dispositions at The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey: particular behavior; (2) inclination: the felt and evaluated their potential for identify- Murial K. Rand is a professor impetus toward a behavior; and (3) ability: ing developmental levels underlying the in the Department of Early Childhood Education the basic capacity to follow through with dispositions. at New Jersey City University, the behavior. The literature shows that assessing Jersey City, New Jersey; In their analysis, someone who is dispositions has been challenging. Tra- and Terry O’Connor is a professor disposed to seek balanced reasons in an ditional assessments typically measure in the Department of Educational Administration argument is: (1) sensitive to occasions to do ability, but don’t tell us much about one’s and Secondary Education so (for instance while reading a newspaper propensity for using that ability. The dif- at The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey. editorial); (2) feels inclined to do so; and ficulty in measuring dispositions is partly SUMMER 2007 31 Research due to the fact that, by nature, disposi- a valuable method for giving candidates provides a structure for understanding the tional behavior is voluntary and cannot feedback, provoking important discussions, deeper developmental process of disposi- be demanded or guided. and evaluating the effectiveness of teacher tions (Kegan, 1980, 1998). Several approaches have been used education programs in promoting cultur- In his framework, Kegan posits five to meet this difficult challenge. Unstruc- ally responsive dispositions (Berliner, orders of meaning-making or conscious- tured student journals have been used to 1994; Eberly & Rand, 2003; Moje & Wade, ness with which all of us approach the examine the contextual understanding of 1996; Rand, 1998; Weiner, Rand, Pagano, problems and challenges in our lives. He the thinking that underlies perceptions Obi, Hall, Eberly, & Bloom, 2000). argues that the complexity of modern life held by preservice teachers (Wilson & As important, the analysis of writ- requires us to often function at the fourth Cameron, 1996). Perceptual scales and ten responses has proven to be a reliable order of consciousness but many of us rubrics have been applied to classroom ob- method for determining what order of do not have the mental structures to do servations, written accounts of incidences, consciousness adults use to organize their so. Because of this, our students often do and interviews (Combs, et al., 1974; Dunn, approach to the issue (Kegan, 1998). This not learn what we think we are teaching, Forest, Burnley, & McDonald, 2004; Graue, method is similar to ways that Kegan’s and we often misinterpret the motivation 2005; Wasicsko, 1978). Recently, Stevens predecessor, William Perry, also attempted and learning needs of students who make and Olivarez (2005) effectively used an to study the developmental transitions of meaning of their experiences at the second interest inventory to measure dispositions college students (Dawson, 2004). Analysis or third order of consciousness. Kegan’s towards mathematics, and Clifton, Perry, of student responses to prompts reveals five orders of consciousness are outlined Stubbs, and Roberts (2004) measured the the type of cognitive organization used to in Table 1. mediating effects of psychosocial disposi- formulate the approach to the issue and Loosely, one can think of the first and tions on academic achievement through a allows researchers to identify the levels second orders as egocentric (me), the third Likert-scale questionnaire. of development used by the study group. order as ethnocentric (us), and the fourth Ennis argues that the most promising and fifth orders as worldcentric (all of way to assess critical thinking dispositions Applying Kegan’s us). If teachers grow from egocentric to is through guided open-ended opportuni- Developmental Theory ethnocentric, they don’t stop caring about ties (Ennis, 1994). These are opportuni- oneself, but that care and concern is now ties for students to pursue any pattern In this study we use teaching cases extended to families, the community, of thinking they want, in response to a to operationalize dispositions by having nation, and so on. With the growth from specific problem situation. Norris (1994) students respond to vignettes that illus- ethnocentric to worldcentric, that care and has explored assessments that challenge trate a multicultural conflict they might understanding is now extended to all peo- students with an open-ended yet focused experience in teaching. We then evaluate ple regardless of race, class, creed, gender, problem situation, such as a search for the responses of students using Kegan’s etc. The higher level of development offers living creatures on another planet. The constructive-developmental model which teachers greater flexibility in navigating problem provides students with some information from which it is possible to Table 1. derive hypotheses, interpretations, and Summary of Kegan’s Orders of Consciousness (Kegan, 1998). conclusions, although students are not explicitly directed to do so. According to Order Subject/Object Relationship Underlying Structure Norris, an analysis of students’ responses can reveal the critical thinking disposi- Cognitive Tool Inter-personal Intra-personal tions they bring to the task. View Feelings Much of the work on assessing dis- positions comes from research on efforts 1st Perceptions Social Perceptions Impulses Single Point/ to change dispositions. Although there Immediate/Atomistic is evidence that dispositions are difficult (fantasy) to change (Goodlad, 1990; Kegan, 1998; Wilbur, 2000), some success has been 2nd Concrete Simple Reciprosity Needs, Durable Category found through coursework, specialized Self Concept curriculum activities, clinical experiences, (actuality) modeling by professors and mentors, and discussion forums (Stevens & Charles, 3rd Abstractions Role Consciousness Subjectivity, Cross-Categorical, 2005; Wakefield, 1993; Yost, 1997). Self Consciousness Trans-Categorical A growing body of literature sug- (ideality) Mutual Reciprosity gests that analysis of teaching cases is a promising way of changing disposi- 4th Abstract Systems Multiple Role Individuation, System/Complex tions (Campbell, 1997; Luckowski, 1997; Autonomy Shulman, 1992; Strike, 1993; Strike & (ideology) Consciousness Soltis, 1985; Wasserman, 1994). Teaching cases present an open-ended problem to 5th Dialectical Interpenetration Inter- Trans-System students and ask them to reflect on the of Self and Other Individuation issues to determine what they would do (trans-ideological) Trans-Complex in a similar situation. This seems to be MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 32  Research the increasingly complex territory of our identifying how and when students make gram and attended a large open-access educational system. developmental changes. university located in a large city with an One-half to two-thirds of the adult Moving from one order to another urban mission. The ethnicities of these population appear not to have fully reached requires examination and deconstruction students were as follows: 10 White, three the fourth order of consciousness (Wilbur, of one’s “big assumptions” (Kegan & La- Hispanic/Latino, one Black, and six who 2000). Generally college students fall some- hey, 2002). This process leads to change did not self-identify. where between the second and the fourth in thought and ultimately in behavior. These students were enrolled in an levels. Kegan argues that children make the Underlying this process of change is the online curriculum class and responded transition from the first to the second order fundamental belief that each of us holds to a case entitled “White Faces Don’t sometime before adolescence. With respect onto assumptions because of our fear of Want to be my Friend” (Rand & Shelton- to the fifth order, Kegan argues “it is rare to the consequences of change. Colangelo, 2003). The other 40 students see people moving beyond the fourth order, As an example, Kegan and Lahey de- were undergraduate secondary education but when they do, it is never before their scribe one manager’s desire that his staff students and attended a small selective forties” (1998, p. 352). Kegan believes that exhibit more individual initiative. How- public liberal arts college located in a many people, therefore, are “in over their ever, the competing assumption that held suburb of another larger city. Thirty-seven heads” by being asked to understand their back his progress is his fear that if he lets of these students were White and three reality at the fourth order when they cannot go of his control, quality of work will fall. were Black. These students responded to mentally do that. This fear inhibits him from realizing his a case entitled “Them and Us” (Rand & Tinberg and Weisenberger (1998) use desire of having subordinates demonstrate Shelton-Colangelo, 2003). See Table 2 for Kegan’s theory to show the problems that more initiative. When a teacher is able description of the data set. arise from students being “in over their to help the learner openly examine such heads” with respect to their instructor’s assumptions, cognitive conflict is created “White Faces Don’t Want expectations. Their analysis of the stu- which functions as the mechanism from To Be My Friend” Case dents’ reflections of readings showed a one developmental level to the next. The teaching case is about a student disconnect between what the teacher was In order to plan such instruction ef- teacher in elementary health education asking and what the students were capable fectively, professors need to know which who has difficulty managing one of her of understanding. order of development their students rely first-grade classes, primarily because of In a similar way, the concern to edu- on to interpret the world and their actions. one challenging student. Toward the end cate teachers to address multicultural is- In this study, we attempt to illustrate the of the case, the student teacher describes sues often fails to recognize the students’ power of developmental approaches to the following scene: readiness for the instruction. For example, multicultural education by examining the many instructional approaches to mul- students’ comments in terms of Kegan’s As part of a dental unit, I was reading ticultural conflict rely on interpersonal orders of meaning making. the class a book about a missing tooth. The book told about two best friends who negotiation or familiarity with others who were always alike until one of them lost a are different from us. Students who are not Method tooth and the other experienced profound developmentally ready to conceptualize the disappointment over being different. As problem in this way will not understand Sixty students enrolled in two differ- I led the class in a discussion about how the meaning of these strategies. ent 4-year colleges in the northeast were people did not have to be the same to Our claim is that the cognitive chal- asked to read a teaching case and respond be friends, I was struck by the fact that lenges generated by multicultural conflict to it in writing. Twenty of these students Jasmine was leaning forward and listen- are moments for transformation of self as were graduate students in an early child- ing intently. I saw her slowly raise her much or more than they are times to dis- hood/elementary education masters pro- hand and hesitantly begin to speak. She cuss technique. It is this deeper transfor- mation that will engender the perspective and ability (and therefore the disposition) Table 2. to respond positively to those who are Data Set. different. Our critique is that other ap- proaches recommend knowledge and skills Data Set A Data Set B that most likely end up in the hands of col- lege students who are not developmentally Case Read “White Faces Don’t “Them and Us” capable of using them effectively. Want to be my Friend” This claim, however, assumes that pro- fessors know the developmental readiness Program Enrolled Early Childhood/Elementary Secondary Education of their students. To create settings that Education challenge students to make developmental growth demands, at the least, that profes- Level of Student Graduate Undergraduate sors have some model of development and some way to recognize the students’ devel- Description Large, Public, Open-Access Small, Public, Selective opmental level. By knowing which order of Institution University with an Urban Mission Liberal Arts 4-year College of consciousness our students are using to make meaning of issues in their profes- Student 10 White, 3 Hispanic/Latino 37 White, 3 Black sional lives, we can next move towards Demographics 1 Black and 6 did not self-identify SUMMER 2007 33 Research said, “I get upset because I have a black ing that each level of awareness has, as its relationships to those who were recogniz- face, and white faces don’t want to be my center of meaning-making a focal strategy ing the cross-cultural dimensions of rela- friend.” (p. 81). for constructing sense. At each order of tionships, they remained working within development, this focal strategy becomes the developmental parameters of Kegan’s “Them and Us” Case more complex; in fact, it become complex by third order of consciousness. Below, typical The teaching case is about a student incorporating the constructs of the earlier responses in each area are listed by order teacher in a suburban high school who stage as the building blocks for the next of consciousness. learns that there is a racial issue behind stage. In a second order of consciousness, the isolation of a group of newcomers in her for example, the focusing strategy is to ex- Order 2 Responses class. These three Latina students always plain the world in terms of a single entity. In general, order 2 responses interpret choose to sit together and work together on A child at this stage explains the world in the case as a personal problem that needs group projects. The student teacher creates terms of his or her ego-centric position. to be resolved by the individual. Systemic a jigsaw activity whereby the students will He or she explains what is wrong with the issues are invisible because the focus is be forced to work in other groups separate world by focusing on what is wrong with on how the individual student feels and from each other. his or her “self.” what can be done to help the learner feel After class the three girls approach In a third order of consciousness, good enough to get back on task, either by the teacher explaining that they prefer to the adolescent has mastered the child’s overcoming negative feelings (such as self- work together because they are not wanted explanation of self and can begin to un- centeredness) or by gaining support from at the school: “They call us names and derstand the world better by focusing on the teacher. make fun of us because we are Latinas.” the relationship between selves. Fourth At the end of the case, the student teacher order consciousness allows the individual Transition to Order 3 Responses describes her dilemma: to switch attention away from the nature of the relationship itself in order to focus on Kegan’s analysis of development rec- I knew this conflict could escalate further the systemic context that organizes these ognizes that there are transitional stages and needed to cease now. How could I when the adult is just beginning to recog- relationships. prevent the name calling in the halls and nize issues in the new order of conscious- cafeteria from happening in the future? In our sample, the students consis- tently focus on the relationship between ness but still struggles to formulate them How could I find a way to get the three students integrated into my classroom? the characters. Few are inclined to rest on using the old. The following responses explanations that emerge from a second or- suggested to us that some students are Students were asked to read the as- der consciousness. Such a response would only starting to recognize that racial issues signed case and respond to the following claim that the minority children are the are embedded in the lived interactions questions: (1) What are the major issues in problem because they refuse to follow the between people while still emphasizing the case? (2) What should the teacher do? ego-centric expectations of the individual the individual’s position as the grounding who is speaking. Instead, our respondents for the explanation (rather than an inter- Findings typically acknowledge that the minorities actional one). have a right to feel alienated because In the “Them or Us” case, the respon- Kegan (1998) claims that the chal- they are placed in bad interpersonal posi- dents begin to recognize the effects of the lenges of modern life require a level of tions. Respondents empathize with them group interactions on their feeling: For cognitive development that many adults, because they have experienced the same student 7 the girls included well-educated ones, have not achieved. Addressing issues of diversity is feelings in similar situations. Their sug- want to feel as comfortable as possible in exactly the kind of demand that requires gestions primarily target ways that the school, and the only way they think they that adults develop more complex mental relationships within the classroom could can feel this way is by not interacting be ameliorated. with the rest of the students. They don’t orientations to the world (1998, 198-233). What is missing, however, is a focus like feeling badly about themselves, so by More specifically, Kegan contends remaining isolated, they are with people that most adults operate at third order on the system of relationships within a who support them. consciousness, while responding effectively racist/sexist/classist society that create to interactions among socially different conditions that support these relationship The problem caused by this separation groups requires at least a fourth order. As breakdowns. With the exception of a general is conceptualized as one of limited social will be illustrated, the response our stu- allusion to the label of culture or race or the abilities: dents made to these cases clearly demon- acceptance that race and class add a new when working in groups of friends, stu- strated that they are functioning at third dimension to interpersonal relationships, dents do not have the opportunity to order. If our teachers are to learn how to students were not focused on explaining expand their social circle. They are not respond effectively to the expectations of or ameliorating the social structures that put in a position where they have to work the multicultural classroom, they will need create these relationship dynamics. through personal conflicts to get the job to take the steps needed to gain the more A review of student responses il- done. When students get older, they are go- lustrates how the focus on relationships ing to be put in life situations where they complex world views found in fourth order allows an approach to making meaning of work with people they don’t like. consciousness. It is our role to understand how to help them take these steps. multicultural events that operates within Her/his response was to introduce cultural The model of cognitive development the range of Kegan’s third order adults. information and insist on social skill devel- that Kegan proposes is a complex one. It While our students ranged from those opment. Cultural information would help may be best characterized by understand- who were just beginning to understand students respect people with other cultural how to conceive the problem in terms of MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 34  Research backgrounds. Yet, the solutions continue to that individuals, like the teacher, are not ing facts about each, maybe they would be trust the ‘fix them’ personally approach of aware of this as a systemic problem and more willing to approach each other. 2nd order thinker. While 3rd order students part of the solution is to help them “see” The other student extended the same respond by discuss things like team-build- the problems. Frequently, issues of social thought with similar limit to the interper- ing strategies, this particular student tar- justice begin to emerge, given that the sonal effect: “The schoolwide problem is a geted the minority students, she/he would system itself unfair. lack of respect and of embracing people’s “continue to force the three Latina students In the “White Faces Don’t Want to be differences. A possible solution is to have to integrate. Even though they will feel My Friend” case, fourth order thinking schoolwide programs.” uncomfortable at first, if they are forced to focuses on how the class provides a set- do this everyday, there is a good chance that ting for Jasmine’s behavior. She is acting Discussion with time, things will change.” out because of classmates rejecting her. A better discriminator, since the classroom Our results indicate that there is an Order 3 Responses relations focus could indicate 3rd order underlying developmental meaning-mak- These responses reflect the largest thinking, is that these students conceptu- ing system. Our claim is that dispositions group of students. They organize the is- alized race as a systemic issue. Student M. are, in their essence, manifested in behav- sues as interpersonal ones. The problem is wanted to create a discussion about race iors that we can see. They are seen in the embedded in the relationship between the as a general construct. Her/his emphasis actions that we take and the language that characters in the case. They can abstract was to “ask the entire class if they think we speak. Underneath these behaviors is some aspects of effective relationships in it is right to exclude someone because of the meaning-making system that results order to diagnose the relational issues. the color of their skin?” in attitudes, values and beliefs. In the “White Faces” case, the problem The solutions, however, revert to ame- Our data are consistent with Kegan’s is viewed as one in which the minority liorating the relationships and the effects theory that this meaning-making system students feel bad as a result of negative of negative relationships on the individual. is in itself a developmental one. There are interpersonal relationships. Student K. “Ask Jasmine how she feels when this qualitative shifts in thinking that result summarizes the situation: “Jasmine is not is done to her … try to make the entire in an understanding of race and cultural behaving well because White faces don’t class understand that Jasmine is hurt by diversity in progressively different ways. want to be her friend.” Her solutions are to this behavior, and if they would like to be These different understandings lead to scaffold these young students into trusting excluded.” predictable dispositional responses. Our relationships. Her ideas are worth quoting Student 9 demonstrates how those students’ responses tended to show dispo- in entirety: making the transition to 4th order con- sitions to respond to these situations based sciousness will construct the “Them or Us” on 3rd order consciousness; there was some If I’m the teacher, I will assure Jasmine case. This student claimed that the isola- evidence of transitions from second order that Black is a beautiful color, and she tion was not a problem but a solution that and towards fourth order thinking. should not be ashamed of her color. If the minority students adopted because of As previous research has indicated, there are other African-American children in that class, I’ll show her how well they the school context. In her/his words it was, the use of narrative teaching cases pro- are behaving and how they are friendly “something that they wanted to ensure vides a rich tool for the exploration of with White faces. In the long term, I will remained the same. They were being per- students’ thoughts, ideas and beliefs. Simi- bring stories for Jasmine about African- secuted in the hallway for being different larly, our findings provide a window into Americans, and how successful they were. and they needed to make sure that they our students’ dispositions and thus their Also, I’ll bring Black dolls to the class, so were at least safe in the classroom. It is a underlying meaning-making system. This that White faces could play with them and schoolwide problem….” information will allow us as instructors she could see that White faces love the The concern, voiced by another stu- to know the order of consciousness our color black. I’ll bring pictures and tapes of Black and White faces playing together. dent at this level, was that the teacher students’ use to understand multicultural Crayons could be very helpful, too. She (and school authorities) would not rec- issue. It can help us prepare appropriate could see that each crayon is unique and ognize the behavior because “she had learning tools to coincide with those de- different, but they all have beautiful col- never been judged based on her race.” The velopmental levels. As Kegan’s work illus- ors, same as the color of people. definition of the race problem is clearly in trates, it is essential that the instructor’s the system of the school and shaped by learning tools and teaching strategies do The “Them or Us” scenario is defined by the society’s racial divisions. In response, not place students in “over their heads.” 3rd order thinkers as primarily a problem these students are just beginning to locate This study represents our preliminary of social relations. the solution in system level behaviors; yet, attempt to recognize the developmental they still aim at resolving the interper- level of our students as evidenced by the Transition to Order 4 Responses sonal fit. She/he says dispositions they demonstrate towards In the transition to 4th order conscious- diversity issues. The next step is to confirm Possible solutions would be to teach La- ness, adults begin to see the dilemma tino history or encourage the girls to join these results in more controlled, systemat- within a systemic context. They have yet an extracurricular activity or change the ic research. The nature of this exploratory to construct a language for understanding permanent seats in the room. Have them pilot work leads us to be tentative in our and analyzing the system. Their reaction [all students] do individual projects on conclusions. Future research can extend is to enhance and extend the interpersonal their heritage and share with the class. this work to include student examination solutions that emerged in 3rd order think- Ann [the teacher] could teach about the of their own thought processes. ing. In particular, they will often argue important of Latino and Jewish commu- We are also interested in what would nity in their school. If she taught interest- assist in transformational learning; that is, SUMMER 2007 35 Research learning that results in a qualitatively dif- Australian Journal of Social Issues, 39(4), Shulman, J. H. (1992). Case methods in teacher ferent thought process and understanding 409-430. education. New York: Teachers College or learning that results in a developmental Eberly, J. L. & Rand, M. K. (2003) Identifying Press. and describing perceptual factors used for Salomon, G. (1994). Interaction of media, cogni- shift in one’s meaning-making system (see, tion, and learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence inferring teacher candidate dispositions for example, Adams, 2002). Analyses us- from on-line case-based discussions. Paper Erlbaum Associates ing different theoretical models, such as Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Strike, K. A. (1993). 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