Chapter 3 Bullet Points PDF

Bullet point Theme- 3 Key concepts in nutshell 1. Many rules and different practices were followed by the people. 2. Very often families were part of larger networks of people we define as relatives. Blood relations can be defined in many different ways. 3. Manusmriti is considered...

Bullet point Theme- 3 Key concepts in nutshell 1. Many rules and different practices were followed by the people. 2. Very often families were part of larger networks of people we define as relatives. Blood relations can be defined in many different ways. 3. Manusmriti is considered the most important Dharma Sutra and Dharmashastras. It was compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE. This laid down rules governing social life. 4. During Mahabharata age gotras were considered very important by higher Varna of societies. 5. Social differences prevailed and integration took place within the framework of caste system. 6. According to the sutras only Kshatriyas could be a king. 7. The original version of Mahabharata is in Sanskrit. 8. It contains vivid descriptions of battles forest, palaces and settlements. Mahabharata, a colossal epic to understand social behaviour of early historic period 1. Historians often use textual traditions to understand Social history. Some texts lay down norms of social behaviour. Others describe a wide range of social situations and practices. 2. Texts like Mahabharata allow us to understand practices that shaped social histories. 3. In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations. 4. It is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It was composed over a period of about1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier. 5. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins. But the text also contains sections laying down norms of social behaviours. Occasionally the principal characters seem to follow these norms. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata 1. In 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar, a team of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata. 2. Initially they collected Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of languages, from different parts of the country. The team compared verses from each manuscript. 3. Ultimately, they selected the verses that appeared common to most versions and published these in several volumes, running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47years to complete. 4. There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over the subcontinent, from Kashmir to Tamil Nadu. 5. Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over the centuries. These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices to the main text Kinship and Marriage Many Rules and Varied Practices in the early society Rules about families(Kinship) 1. Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term, kinfolk. 2. We noticed that not all families are identical: they vary in terms of number of members, their relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share. 3. Often people belonging to the same family share food, resources, work, and live together and perform rituals together. 4. While familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood, they are defined in many different ways. Some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas others do not. 5. For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly easily; it is, however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people. Rules about patriliny Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. Matriliny is the term used when descent is traced through the mother. At one level, the Mahabharata is a story about patriliny.  It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the janapadas. Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their fathers when the father died. Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this system, although there were variations in practice: sometimes there were no sons, brothers succeeded one another, and sometimes other kinsmen (distant relatives) claimed the throne. In very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power. The concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families but also in ordinary families Rules of marriage There were two systems of marriage- Endogamy and Exogamy. Marriage within the kin is called Endogamy. Marriage outside the kin is called Exogamy. The lives of young girls and women belonging to elite families were often carefully regulated to ensure that they were married at the “right” time and to the “right” person. This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father. There are three types of marriage- 1. Monogamy (It is the practice of a man having one wife), 2. polygamy or Polygyny (It is the practice of a man having several wives) and 3. Polyandry ( It is the practice of a woman having several husbands) From c. 500 BCE, marriage norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras and Manusmriti. These texts recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as “good” (Which were arranged by the parents of the boy or girl) while the remaining four were condemned (Which were not fixed by the elders) It is possible that last four forms of marriage were practised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms. The Gotra rules for women One Brahmanical practice was to classify people in terms of gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants. Two rules about gotra were particularly important: a) women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and b) members of the same gotra could not marry. 3. Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous. The Queens who married Satavahana rulers indicate that many of them had their father’s gotras even after the marriage. 4. What is also apparent is that some of these Queens belonged to the same gotra. As is obvious, this was opposite to the ideal of exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts. 5. In fact, it exemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group, which is prevalent amongst several communities in south India. Satavahanas also had marriage relations with Shakas, who were considered as out castes. Were mothers important in early societies? 1. We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymic. It means their names derived from that of the mother. 2. In the case of the Satavahanas we know that succession to the throne was generally patrilineal. It means sons succeeded to the throne after the death of father Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste The “right” occupation a. The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the four categories or varnas b. Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts. c. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts. d. The Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade. e. Shudras were assigned only one occupation – that of serving the three “higher” varnas. The Brahmanas evolved many strategies for enforcing right occupation norms. a. One was to assert that the varna order was of divine origin. b. Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms. c. Third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth. d. They also reinforced these norms by stories like Mahabharata and other texts.  Non-Kshatriya kings a. According to the Dharmashastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling lineages probably had different origins. b. The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has been hotly debated. Brahmanical texts described that Mauryas were of “low” origin. c. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. (In fact, political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.) d. Shakas who came from Central Asia were regarded as mlechchhas, (barbarians) or outsiders by the Brahmanas. They ruled north western part of India. e. It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri- Satakani, claimed to be a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. f. Integration within the framework of caste was often a complicated process. The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas, whereas according to the Brahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas. They claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order, but entered into marriage alliances with people who were supposed to be excluded from the system. Jatis and social mobility a. In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth. However, while the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis. b. In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups like nishadas – or wanted to assign a name to occupational categories like goldsmith used jati to classify them. c. Jati means people sharing a common occupation or profession. They were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds. d. One interesting stone inscription found in Madhya Pradesh records the history of a guild of silk weavers who originally lived in Gujarat migrated to Madhya Pradesh were known as Dashapura. e.The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse of complex social processes and provides insights into the nature of guilds or shrenis.  Beyond the four varnas (Integration of varna practices) 1. Those who could not be easily accommodated within the framework of settled agriculturists and those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas or out castes and looked down upon. 2. There was a sharing of ideas and beliefs between higher varna people and forest dwellers and out castes. 3. The nature of relations between these people is evident in some stories in the Mahabharata. 4. For example Eklavya, a forester who never goes to battle -wanted to learn archery from Dronacharya. 5. Bhima, one of the five brothers of Pandava family married Hidimba, a Rhakshasi by birth and they gave birth to a child. Beyond the four varnas (Subordination of the lower varnas and conflict between higher and lower varnas) 1. While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system, they also developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as “untouchable”. 2. Those who considered themselves Pure (Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas) avoided taking food and water from those they designated as “untouchable” (Shudras). 3. Some of the activities of untouchables were regarded as “polluting”. These included handling dead bodies and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated as chandalas, were placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy. 4. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as “polluting”. The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas. They were, a. They had to live outside the village. b. They had to use discarded utensils. c. They had to wear clothes of the dead d. They had to wear only ornaments made of iron. e. They could not walk about in villages and cities at night. f. They had to dispose of the dead bodies of those who had no relatives. g. They had to serve as executioners. h. Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian wrote that “untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid seeing them. i. Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city. Social implications of access to Resources and Status a. Gendered access to property 1. According to the Manusmriti, Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the Father, with a special share for the eldest. 2. Women could not claim a share of these resources. 3However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it. 4. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission. 5. Wealthy women such as the Vakatakas queen Prabhavati Gupta had property including lands. However epigraphic and textual evidences suggest that upper-class women had access to resources, land, cattle and money. b.Varna and access to property 1. According to the Brahmanical texts, another criterion for regulating access to wealth was varna., 2. While a variety of occupations were listed for men of the first three varnas, the only “occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude. 3. If these provisions were actually implemented, the wealthiest men would have been the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The poorest men would have been Shudras. 4. The Buddhist texts recognised that there were differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or inflexible. 5. The Buddhist texts also rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth. c. An alternative social scenario-Sharing wealth in ancient Tamil Nadu. 1. In ancient Tamilnadu, where men who were generous were respected, while those who were miserly or simply accumulated wealth for them were disrespected. 2. In Tamilnadu, where, there were several chiefdoms around 2,000 years ago. The chiefs were patrons of bards and poets who sang songs in praise of them. 3. Poems included in the Tamil Sangam anthologies often illuminate social and economic relationships, while there were differences between rich and poor, those who controlled resources were also expected to share them. Explaining social differences: A Social Contract  The Buddhists also developed an alternative understanding of social inequalities.  In a myth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka, they suggested that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.  The institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the king.  It was never a rigid system because if human beings were responsible for the creation of the system, they could also change it in future. Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata:- Historians consider several elements when they analyse texts. They examine the languages and kinds of texts. They also found out the authors and audience because authors keep the interests of their audience in mind while composing their work.  They also ascertain the possible date of the composition or compilation and the place where they may have been composed. A Dynamic Text: Historians usually classify the contents of the present the Mahabharata under two broad heads – sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative, and sections that contain prescriptions about social norms; designated as didactic (the narrative often contains a social message). Generally historians agree that the Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, moving story, and that the didactic portions were probably added later. · The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements. · The enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa. · The Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements. · The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts. At the same time, the central story of the epic was often retold in different ways. Very short type Questions 1. Who compiled the critical edition of the Mahabharata in 1919? 2. Mention one feature of patriliny system. 3. Mention two rules followed by women about Gotra. 4. How do historians classify the content of the Mahabharata? 5. Why is the Mahabharata regarded as a dynamic text? Short Answer Type Questions 1. What were the rules of ideal occupations of the four varnas according to the Dharmashastras? 2. What were the rules of marriage followed in the Dharmasutras? 3. What were the duties of the Chandalas laid down in the Manusmriti? 4. What were the different elements considered by the historians while analyzing the text? 5. What is the most challenging episode of the Mahabharata? Give three reasons. 6. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed. 2. Analyse the language, content, authors and dates of the composition of the Mahabharata. High Order Thinking Questions (Competency based questions): 13. Mahabharata is a story based on kinship and social relations. Support the statement with examples. 14. Mahabharata is a good source to study the social values of ancient times. Support the statement with suitable arguments. Passage Based Question Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow: How could men and women acquire wealth? For men, Manusmriti declares, there are seven means of acquiring wealth, inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work and acceptance of gifts from good people. For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth; what was given in front of the fire(marriage) or the bridal procession , or as a token of affection, and what she got from her brother, mother or father. She could also acquire through any subsequent gifts and whatever her affectionate husband might give her. 1) What were the means of acquiring wealth by men according to the Manusmriti? 2 2) What were the means of acquiring wealth by women according to the Manusmriti?2 3) Name a woman who had access to land resources in the 6th century BCE. 1