Anatomy and Physiology Supplemental Module PDF

Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG...

Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 Anatomy and Physiology Supplemental Module CHAPTER 9: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM and CHAPTER 13: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Prepared by: Vianney Airess R. Rezaba, RN Reference: Marieb, E., & Keller, S. (2022). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (13th ed.) [Review of Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology]. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd. LEARNING OBJECTIVES ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 1. Identify the major endocrine glands and their locations within the body. 2. Describe the function of key hormones secreted by the endocrine glands, including their effects on target tissues and organs. 3. Explain the mechanisms of hormone action, including how hormones regulate physiological processes through feedback loops. 4. Analyze common endocrine disorders and their impact on the body, such as diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and hyperthyroidism. 5. Apply knowledge of endocrine physiology to assess and manage patients with endocrine conditions, including interpreting laboratory results and administering appropriate medications. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. Identify the structures of the upper and lower respiratory tracts and their functions in gas exchange. 2. Describe the mechanics of breathing, including the role of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in inspiration and expiration. 3. Explain the process of gas exchange in the alveoli, including the diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide out of the bloodstream. 4. Analyze common respiratory disorders, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pneumonia, and their impact on respiratory function. 5. Apply knowledge of respiratory physiology to assess and manage patients with respiratory conditions, including performing respiratory assessments, administering oxygen therapy, and educating patients about respiratory health 1|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 CHAPTER 9: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM OVERVIEW Function o Second controlling system of the body (after the nervous system) Key Processes Controlled by Hormones o Reproduction o Growth and development o Immune response mobilization o Homeostasis maintenance o Metabolism regulation Mechanism o Hormones (chemical messengers) are secreted into the blood and act on target cells. CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES Amino acid-based hormones o Proteins o Peptides o Amines Steroids o Derived from cholesterol Prostaglandins o Lipids acting as local hormones HORMONE ACTIONS Target cells and organs o Hormones interact with cells that have specific receptors Cellular effects o Alter membrane permeability or potential. o Activate/inactivate enzymes. o Influence cell division and secretion. o Regulate gene transcription MECHANISMS Direct Gene Activation (e.g., steroid and thyroid hormones) o Hormone binds intracellular receptors, altering DNA transcription Second-Messenger System (e.g. protein hormones o Hormone binds membrane receptors, initiating intracellular signaling cascades 2|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 STIMULI FOR HORMONE RELEASE 1. Hormonal Stimuli ▪ Activation by other hormones (e.g., hypothalamus-pituitary relationship). 2. Humoral Stimuli ▪ Blood ion/nutrient changes (e.g., insulin, parathyroid hormone) 3. Neural Stimuli ▪ Nervous system triggers (e.g., adrenal medulla activation) 3|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS Pituitary Gland o Anterior: produces growth hormone prolactin, and tropic hormones (e.g., TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH) o Posterior: releases hypothalamus-produced oxytocin and ADH Thyroid Gland o Produces thyroid hormone (metabolism) and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium) ▪ Composed of 2 active iodine-containing hormones Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3) Parathyroid Glands o Secretes parathyroid hormone (raises blood calcium) ▪ Most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood 4|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 Adrenal Glands o Sits on top of the kidneys o Cortex: outer glandular region has 3 layers that produce corticosteroids ▪ Corticosteroids (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones). Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) o Produced in the adrenal cortex (outer) o Regulate water and electrolyte balance Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol) o Promote normal cell metabolism o Anti-inflammatory properties (decrease edema and pain) o Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH Sex hormones o Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex o Most of the hormones produced are androgens (male sex hormones), but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed o Medulla: inner neural tissue region ▪ Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine for stress response) These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (“fight-or-flight”) by: o Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels o Dilating small passageways of lungs ▪ These events result in more oxygen and glucose in the blood and faster circulation to the organs 5|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 MAJOR MECHANISMS CONTROLLING ALDOSTERONE RELEASE FROM THE ADRENAL CORTEX Pancreas o Insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood sugar). o Insulin ▪ Released when blood glucose levels are high 6|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 ▪ Effects are hypoglycemic o Glucagon ▪ Released when blood glucose levels are low ▪ Effects are hyperglycemic Homeostasis Link: https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL53haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv regulation of blood glucose level by negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic hormones Pineal Gland o Produces melatonin (sleep/wake cycles). Gonads o Produce sex cells (exocrine function) ▪ Ovaries (estrogen, progesterone) Female: produce ova, or eggs Located in the pelvic cavity ▪ Testes (testosterone) Suspended outside the pelvic cavity Male: produce sperm, androgen e.g., testosterone 7|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 ❖ 6 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES o 2 hormones affect nonendocrine targets ▪ 1. Growth Hormone ▪ 2. Prolactin o 4 tropic hormones (tropic hormone stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones) ▪ 1. Follicle-stimulating Hormone ▪ 2. Luteinizing Hormone ▪ 3. Thyrotropic Hormone ▪ 4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone SPECIALIZED FUNCTIONS OF OTHER OGRANS Thymus o Thymosin for immune cell maturation. Placenta o Hormones for pregnancy maintenance and lactation. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS Endocrine efficiency remains high until aging reduces gland functionality o Menopause: Reduced ovarian hormones leading to osteoporosis and cardiovascular issues. o General Aging: Increased diabetes, immune suppression, lower metabolism 8|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 CHAPTER 13: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 9|Page  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY Nose o External Feature ▪ Nostrils (nares) allow air entry o Internal Features ▪ Nasal cavities lined with respiratory mucosa to moisten air, trap particles, and destroy bacteria. ▪ Conchae increase surface area and air turbulence. ▪ Paranasal sinuses lighten the skull, resonate speech, and produce mucus. Pharynx (Throat) o Muscular passageway connecting the nasal cavity and larynx o Regions ▪ Nasopharynx: Air passageway. ▪ Oropharynx: Passage for air and food. ▪ Laryngopharynx: Routes food to the esophagus and air to the larynx. o Tonsils ▪ Lymphatic tissues offer immune protection. Larynx (Voice Box) o Routes air and food correctly, involved in speech production. o Key Structures ▪ Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple). ▪ Epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx. ▪ Vocal cords vibrate for sound production. Trachea (Windpipe) o 4-inch tube reinforced by C-shaped cartilage rings. o Lined with ciliated mucosa that traps debris and moves it upward. Bronchi and Lungs o Bronchi ▪ Primary bronchi branch into smaller tubes ending in bronchioles o Lungs ▪ Right lung has 3 lobes; left lung has 2 lobes. ▪ Covered by serous membranes: visceral pleura (lungs) and parietal pleura (thoracic cavity). ▪ Pleural fluid reduces friction during breathing. Respiratory Zone o Includes respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. o Alveoli ▪ Gas exchange occurs across the respiratory membrane. ▪ Features surfactant (reduces surface tension) and macrophages (remove debris). 10 | P a g e  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY Functions of the respiratory system o Supply the body with oxygen o Dispose carbon dioxide Four Key Events 1. Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing): Movement of air in and out of the lungs 2. External Respiration: Gas exchange between alveoli and blood. 3. Respiratory Gas Transport: Oxygen and carbon dioxide transported via the bloodstream 4. Internal Respiration: Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells. 11 | P a g e  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 MECHANICS OF BREATHING Pulmonary ventilation o Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity o Volume changes leaf to pressure changes, which leads to the flow of gases to equalize pressure Concept Link Recall that pressure changes also drive other processes in the body, such as filtration (passive transport; Chapter 3, pp. 96–98) and blood flow (Chapter 11). In these processes, substances move from high to low pressure and achieve a specific function, such as membrane transport or circulation. 2 phases of pulmonary ventilation o Inspiration ▪ Diaphragm and external intercostals contract. ▪ Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases, air flows in. o Expiration ▪ Passive process; lung elasticity reduces volume, increases pressure, air flows out. ▪ Forced expiration involves internal intercostal muscles. RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES Factors affecting respiratory capacity o Size, sex, age, physical condition Tidal Volume (TV): Normal breath (~500 mL). Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra air inhaled (~3,100 mL). Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra air exhaled (~1,200 mL). Residual Volume: Air remaining after full exhalation (~1,200 mL). Vital Capacity (VC): Total exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV). NON-RESPIRATORY AIR MOVEMENTS Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions 12 | P a g e  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 o Examples ▪ Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris ▪ Crying—emotionally induced mechanism ▪ Laughing—similar to crying ▪ Hiccup—sudden inspirations ▪ Yawn—very deep inspiration RESPIRATORY SOUNDS Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a stethoscope o Bronchial sounds ▪ produced by air rushing through large passageways such as the trachea and bronchi o Vesicular breathing sounds ▪ soft sounds of air filling alveoli GAS EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT External respiration o Oxygen moves from alveoli to blood; CO2 moves from blood to alveoli. Gas Transport o Oxygen binds to hemoglobin (forms oxyhemoglobin). o Carbon dioxide transported as bicarbonate ions in plasma or bound to hemoglobin. Internal Respiration o Oxygen delivered to tissues; CO2 loaded into blood CONTROL OF RESPIRATION Neural regulation o Controlled by medulla (rhythm) and pons (smooth breathing). 13 | P a g e  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 o Normal rate: 12-15 breaths/minute (eupnea). Non-neural factors o Physical ▪ Temperature, exercise, talking, coughing. o Chemical ▪ Rising CO2 levels lower blood pH (acidosis), increasing breathing rate. ▪ Peripheral chemoreceptors detect oxygen concentration changes. RESPIRATORY DISORDERS Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) o Chronic bronchitis: Excess mucus, inflammation. o Emphysema: Alveoli destruction, loss of elasticity. Lung Cancer o Aggressive, linked to smoking. Asthma o Bronchiole inflammation and hypersensitivity 14 | P a g e  Republic of the Philippines CE B U T E CHNOLOGI CA L U NI V E RSI T Y - M a i n Campus in consortium with CE B U CI T Y ME DI CA L CE NT ER COL L E GE OF NURSI NG Dionisio Jakosalem Street, 6000, Cebu City, Cebu Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph Email: [email protected] Phone: +6332 – 316 1987 or 316 5128 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS Infants o Lungs functional at birth but require surfactant for full inflation Aging o Lung elasticity decreases. o Vital capacity and blood oxygen levels drop. o Increased risk of respiratory infections 15 | P a g e