Biology Cell Notes PDF

1)​ List and describe the characteristics of living organisms 1) Organisms reproduce ​ They can make copies of themselves because cells can copy the genetic information in the DNA 2) Organisms need a continual ​ Organis...

1)​ List and describe the characteristics of living organisms 1) Organisms reproduce ​ They can make copies of themselves because cells can copy the genetic information in the DNA 2) Organisms need a continual ​ Organisms need to take in food to provide energy to function and do its supply of energy job. ​ Organisms can produce their own food, or take in food from other sources ​ Energy is extracted from food in a process called respiration 3) Organisms grow and develop ​ Pattern of growth and development depends on the DNA and the organism's experience/environment ​ They increase in size 4) Organisms respond to stimuli ​ To survive in their environment, organisms can adapt to changes in from their changing environment their surroundings. 5) Organisms have evolved from ​ All organisms alive today evolved from a common ancestor other organisms ​ Organisms become adapted to their environment as they evolve. 6) All organisms alive today are ​ All organisms are made of the same types of chemicals (Ex: Sugar, made of similar things DNA, protein) ​ All organisms are made up of cells 7) Organisms excrete waste ​ Organisms get rid of waste products (Ex: Carbon Dioxide) 8) Organisms move ​ Organisms are able to move all or part of their bodies 2)​ Understand the cellular nature of all living things (cell theory) Cell theory: ​ All living things are made of cells ​ Cells perform all life processes (Show all the characteristics of life) ​ Cell are born from other cells 3)​ Know that almost all new cells are born by cell division Daughter cells contain genetic information identical to the parent cell Allows for: ​ An organism to grow and change ​ The replacement of damaged, old, or dead cells. ​ An organism to reproduce *For a cell to undergo cell division, the parent cells need to become the daughter cells. They will no longer exist. 4)​ Describe the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells Domain: ​ Bacteria (Prokaryote) ​ Archaea (Prokaryote) ​ Eukarya (Eukaryotes) Eukarya: ​ Protists (uni and multi) ​ Plantae (multicellular) ​ Fungi (multicellular) ​ Animalia (multicellular) Prokaryotic cells VS Eukaryotic cells  ​ Do not have a nucleus ​ Have a nucleus ​ Have few or no membrane-contained ​ Have membrane-contained organelles organelles ​ Plants, fungi, and some protists have cell ​ Have a cell wall walls ​ Smaller, typically 1 micrometers long ​ Larger, generally 10-100 micrometers long (microscopic) ​ Animals protists, plants, and fungi are ​ All bacteria are prokaryotes eukaryotes ​ Unicellular (made up of one cell) ​ Multicellular (made up of multiple cells) ​ Have simple structures ​ Have complex structures 5)​ Describe the differences between viruses and cells Size Viruses are 50-500x smaller than prokaryotes and 5000x smaller than eukaryotes Metabolism Viruses do not carry out any chemical reactions on their own and rely on their host cell. (Need a host cell to reproduce) Organelles Carry no organelles, or only have a very simple version Genetic material Both viruses and cells contain DNA Life cycle Viruses cannot survive outside of a cell for long. Cells remain alive as long as they carry out metabolism * Viruses are neither eukaryotes nor prokaryotes because they are not considered living 6)​ Describe the difference between plant and animal cells (Prokaryotes) (Eukaryotes) (Eukaryotes) Bacterial cells Plant cells Animal cells  Cell wall ✔️ ✔️ ❌ Nucleus ❌ ✔️ ✔️ CENTRAL vacuole in most cells ❌ ✔️ Some have small vacuoles Chloroplasts ❌ ✔️ ❌ Other organelles with membranes (Ex: ❌ ✔️ ✔️ mitochondria) Typical size 1 micrometer 50 micrometer 20 micrometer ALL cells have: (Prokaryotes) (Eukaryotes) (Eukaryotes) Bacterial cells Plant cells Animal cells Cell membrane ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Cytoplasm ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Ribosomes ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ DNA ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ 7)​ Describe the function of the following structure, and be able to identify these structures on diagrams and photographs of cells. Nucleus ​ Contains the DNA ​ Controls activities of the cell Cell membrane ​ Controls what enters and leaves the cell ​ Forms the outer edge of the cell Cell wall ​ Surrounds the cell membrane, and gives the cell a distinct shape ​ Found in plant, fungi, some protists, and bacterial cells Chloroplast ​ Photosynthesis occurs here ​ Contains a green chemical called chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight Mitochondria ​ Oval structures where respiration takes place Nucleolus ​ Round structures inside the nucleus where ribosomes are made Vacuole ​ Stores water and other materials (storage) ​ Most plant cells have a large, central vacuole Vesicle ​ A small sac made of membrane that can transport substances in the cytoplasm Ribosomes ​ Small round structures that make protein Endoplasmic ​ A set of membranes near the nucleus that produces lipids and modifies proteins Reticulum (ER) Golgi body ​ Receives proteins from the ER and prepares them for transport Lysosome ​ Type of vesicle ​ Enzymes break down food or cellular parts ​ Found in plant and animal cells Cytoplasm ​ Part of the cell between the nucleus and the cell membrane ​ House and maintain an optimal environment for organelles (so many chemical processes take place here) ​ Contains dissolved reactants and products Protein: Ribosomes → Rough ER → Smooth ER –< Golgi body -> diffuse out of cell In a real-life microscopic image, lavel only the parts u can see  8)​ Gives examples of cell specialization, relating cell structure to function Cellular differentiation: Process by which a cell changes from one cell to another, typically from a less specialized type to a more specialized type. → Through evolution, cells have evolved their shape and structure to be better at their function Example: Red blood cells Function - Carry oxygen to the rest of our bodies Structural adaptations- ​ No nucleus to allow more space for hemoglobin, which oxygen attaches to  ​ Thin membrane to diffuse oxygen easier ​ Concave surface for more surface area to absorb oxygen. Specialization vs differeentiaition ​ Specialization mean its shaped to do a specific job. The state ​ Differentiation means that it came from one original cell. The process 9)​ Define and give examples of tissue, organs, organ systems Cells Tissue Organs Organ system ​ Specialized cell ​ Group of ​ A complex structure ​ Group of organs designed to do a specialized cells of that performs a that work together particular job one type that work specific function to perform a major together body function ​ ​ Made up of tissues Example Example: Example: Example: ​ Muscle cells ​ Connective tissue ​ Heart, blood ​ Circulatory ​ Red blood cells ​ Cardiac tissue vessels system ​ Nasal tissue ​ Nose, eyes ​ Sensory system ​ Skeletal tissue ​ Nervous tissue ​ Ovaries ​ Reproductive ​ Testes system ​ Neurons ​ Brain ​ Nervous system ​ Nervous cells ​ Spinal cord ​ Gut, liver ​ Digestive system ​ Pancreas ​ Kidneys ​ Excretory system ​ Bladder ​ Liver Cell → Tissue → Organ → System → Organism 10)​Converting between micrometers and other units of length  1 milimeter = 1000 micrometer 1 centimeter = 10 milimeter 1 meter = 1000 milimeter 1 centimeter = 10,000 micrometer 1 meter = 1,000,000 micrometer Example: 20 cm to μm → 200,000 μm 45 μm to mm → 0.0045 0.0055 cm to μm → 55 μm 0.0024 cm to μm → 24μm 11)​Describe the functions of each component in a light microscope and explain how to make stained slides Eyepiece ​ Further magnifies the image produced by the objective lenses ​ Magnification depends on each microscope. Objective lens ​ Capture the emitted light from the specimen and produces an enlarged image Stage ​ Where the specimen is placed for observation Focus - Course and fine ​ Course - Bring the specimen into near focus ​ Fine - Sharpen the focus quality after it was brought into course focus. Diaphragm ​ Controlling the amount of light that passes through the specimen  For high/medium magnification = Use fine focus knob only For low magnification = Use course and fine focus knob Making stained slides: 1)​ Center the specimen on the center of the slide 2)​ Using a pipette, drop water onto the specimen and use forceps to smooth out the wrinkles 3)​ Put a coverslip on top of the specimen 4)​ Use a pipette to drop a small amount of methylene blue onto one edge of the coverslip 5)​ Take a paper towel and use it to absorb the water from the opposite edge, spreading the methylene blue 6)​ Do this until there is no liquid leftover and at least some parts of the specimen are stained. 12)​Explain the difference between light and electron microscopes Light Microscope Electron Microscope What it uses to ​ Uses lenses to bend lights ​ Uses electromagnets to focus beams produce images of electron Magnification ​ Maximum of 2000x ​ Maximum of 500,000x Specimen’s state ​ Can view living or dead specimens ​ Can only view dead specimens as they are put in a vacuum Color ​ Images appear in natural color ​ Images appear in black and white images ​ “False color” can be put during the image processing. Types of electron microscope: Transmission electron microscope (TEM) = only 2D images Scanning electron microscope (SEM) = can produce 3D images 13)​Briefly explain the factors that limit the size of cells Why are small cells better? 1)​ The time needed to transport materials inside the cell is shorter 2)​ The smaller the cell, the higher the surface area : volume ratio. a)​ Allows for more surfaces for diffusion, therefore the rate of diffusion is faster → Faster and more efficient help provide the cell with enough nutrients for its needs. 14)​Calculate the actual size of cells if given the magnification or a scale line on a drawing A)​ Magnification is given 1)​ First, measure the cell with a ruler 2)​ Divide the length by the magnification 3)​ Convert it to micro meters B)​ Size scale is given 1)​ Measure the cell length in millimeters 2)​ Measure the length of the bar 3)​ The cell’s length is (1/2) x 10 μm Or 1)​ Measure the cell length 2)​ Measure the length of the bar 3)​ Find the ratio of the actual length of bar : what written as the length. 4)​ Multiply the number by the actual length of the cell PREPARE ACTUAL RULER AND FIND ITS UNITS Q: What is it meant by “time needed for diffusion to move materials around is short”? 4 pages 1)​ Multiple questions - one mark each 2)​ Short Answer questions - drawing, filling in blanks, writing, identifying Textbook pages: (Pickerings) 6-9, 22-27 (Roberts) 8-13, 18-19 Practice questions: 1)​ What makes something living? 2)​ What are the major components of cells and what are their functions? 3)​ What are the similarities and differences between bacterial, animal, and plant cells? 4)​ How are cells organized within organisms? Important vocab: ​ Cell ​ Cell division ​ Cell membrane ​ Cell specialization ​ Cell theory ​ Cell wall ​ Cellulose ​ Chlorophyll ​ Chloroplast ​ Cytoplasm ​ Differentiation ​ DNA/RNA ​ Electron microscope ​ Endoplasmic reticulum ​ Eukaryotic/eukaryote ​ Excretion  ​ Fungi ​ Golgi body ​ Lysosome ​ Magnification ​ Metabolism ​ Micrometer ​ Microscope slide ​ Mitochondria/mitochondrion ​ Nucleus ​ Nucleous ​ Objective lens ​ Organ ​ Organ system ​ Organism ​ Prokaryotic/prokaryote ​ Protist ​ Respiration ​ Ribosome ​ Specimen ​ Tissue ​ Vascuole ​ Vesicle Exam confirmed ​ Labelling cells ​ Converting between micrometers ​ Labelling microscope parts Not enough reactants provided to assume cellular processes Practice questions on moodle 2Blue - Important vocab ​ Red - key concepts 1)​ Describe the process of diffusion as the result of the random movement of particles in liquid and gases down a concentration gradient Diffusion - Movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. ​ Passive process - diffusion can happen on its own, and no extra energy is needed ​ Concentration gradient - a difference in concentration that drives diffusion ​ Equilibrium - there is no concentration gradient, thus diffusion stops This can happen because atoms have: ​ kinetic energy, allowing them to translate ​ a constant random motion, allowing them to collide Example: Bromine diffuses down its concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to low concentration. It will continue until the areas have equal concentration or equilibrium. 2)​ Be aware that diffusion can effectively transport substances only over short distances within organisms Diffusion in organisms is helpful for short-distance, not long-distances. Otherwise, it will be too slow. ✅ ❌ → Diffusion inside and between cells → Diffusion between different body parts This is because organisms are made of water, which makes diffusion slow. FACTORS THAR AFFECT SPEED OF CONCENTRATION 3)​ Give a simple description of the cell membrane structure Cell membrane structure: ​ Made of phospholipids which can move  ​ Many proteins on its surface ​ Have two layers ​ The surface is fluid and flexible 4)​ Use vocabs to show the permeability of the membrane to a substance Permeable Selectively permeable Impermeable The subject can pass through The membrane lets some substances through but The substance cannot the membrane not others pass through the membrane Ex: The membrane is permeable Ex: The membrane is permeable to X, but is Ex: The membrane is to oxygen impermeable to Y. Therefore, it is selectively impermeable to starch permeable. *Use these depending on the given context. A membrane can turn into selectively permeable from permeable with new information. 5)​ Explain the different ways in which substances pass through cell membranes 1.​ Simple diffusion Go through: Directly through the bilayer of the cell membrane Concentration gradient: Go down the concentration gradient (Area of high concentration → Area of low concentration) Molecule type: Small and lipid-soluble Ex: Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Water Passive vs Active process: It is a passive process 2.​ Facilitated diffusion Go through: Go through (not directly) the cell membrane with the help of transport proteins. Concentration gradient: Go down the concentration gradient (Area of high concentration → Area of low concentration) Molecule type: Medium-sized substances that are water soluble Ex: Ions, Glucose, Amino acids, Water Passive vs Active process: It is a passive process  3.​ Active transport Go through: Go through (not directly) the cell membrane with the help of transport proteins that ATP powers Concentration gradient: Go up the concentration gradient (Area of low concentration → Area of high concentration) Possible because the ATP (energy) powers the proteins Molecule type: Medium-sized substances that are water soluble Ex: Ions, Glucose, Amino acids, Water *Transports the same substances as facilitated diffusion Passive vs Active process: It is an active process  4.​ Bulk transport Go through: Go through (not directly) the cell membrane by being enclosed in a vesicle Molecule type: Substances that were too big to pass through the cell membrane, do not have to be water-soluble Ex: Protein molecules, enzymes Passive vs Active process: It is an active process Endocytosis Exocytosis Molecules entering the cell through bulk Molecules exiting the cell through bulk transport transport Phagocytosis - “Cell eating” Pinocytosis - “Cell drinking” 6)​ Compare and contrast the different ways  TAKE PICTURE OF VENN DIAGRAM 7)​ Define osmosis Osmosis: Movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration. Osmosis continues until equilibrium on both sides. *Happens because water will move to balance out the concentration ratio (solute:solvent) 8)​ Explain the consequences of placing animal and plant cells in hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions. Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic Higher concentration of solutes Same concentration of solutes Lower concentration of solutes compared to another solution. compared to another solution compared to another solution. Hypertonic surrounding in plant cells: Isotonic environment in plant cells: Hypotonic environment in plant cells: Will become plasmolysed: Will become flaccid Will become turgid ​ ​ Cell membranes become visible No water is coming in or out → not ​ Chloroplasts become as firm as in a hypotonic The membrane pushes against concentrated surrounding. the cell wall → firm and hard ​ Edges of the cell wall curve → Provide structural support for inwards. → Unhealthy state soft parts → Very Unhealthy state → Healthy state Hypertonic surrounding in plant cells: Isotonic environment in animal Hypotonic environment in animal cells: cells: Cells will shrivel and can die unless they regain water. Cells will not change in volume Cells will swell and burst from overall. the pressure *Hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic can only be used to compare the concentration of two different solutions. Advice for writing about osmosis: YURGEFHIWOJ DO THIS LATER 9)​ Explain the role of the contractile vacuole in freshwater protozoa such as Paracieum Cells without cell walls are under threat of bursting in a hypotonic solution. → Contractile vacuole = Collect and expel excess water Ex: Paracieum ​ Unicellular and eukaryotic cell (protist) ​ Lives in a hypotonic environment (freshwater) → has contractile vacuole Q: Do substances that pass through bulk transport need to be water-soluble? - NO Why can’t water soluble molecules go through simple diffusion and bulk transport? Why does molecules that pass through active and facilitated transport need to be water soluble? Generally, all molecules need to be water soluble ( water outside cell, water inside cell) But cell membrane are made of lipids (can’t mix) so water soluble molecules can’t get through directly (simple diffusion) But rlly small water soluble molecules are fine Therefore, water soluble molecules need to go through ways that are not directly through membrane ( active and facilitated transport) *Review converting between micrometers 1)​ Explain what food is and why we need it Food:  ​ Chemical energy stored in organic molecules ​ Consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism Food provides… ​ Molecules for growth, repair, and development ​ Molecules that act as sources of ATP (energy) ​ Elements and compounds that help raw materials and energy be used efficiently 2)​ Define autotrophs and heterotrophs Autotrophs - Make their own food: photosynthesis to create carbs Heterotrophs - Can’t make their own food, so they absorb or eat from other organisms 3)​ List the 8 nutrients of a balanced diet and list their major sources A healthy diet is having all 7 different kind Nutrient Sources Function Carbohydrate ​ Starch: rice, grain, cereal Provides energy for respiration ​ Sugar: candy, honey Fruits - Fructose Seeds - Starch Lipid ​ Insoluble in water: butter, fish Provides energy for respiration oil, cheese ​ Nuts Insulation: Prevent heat loss, and electrical transfer ​ Dairy products from nerve cells ​ Avocado Structural component of cells (Ex: Cell membrane) Protein ​ Meat and fish Variety of functions due to the nearly infinite variety of ​ Dairy products proteins: ​ Legumes: beans, lentils ​ Eggs ​ Digestive enzymes: Help break down nutrients ​ Hormones: Coordinate the activity of different body systems ​ Transport: Calcium (mineral) ​ Dairy products Gives bones/teeth structure and hardness  ​ Dark green, leafy vegetables ​ Fish with bones Regulate muscle contraction Iron (mineral) ​ Red meat Makes hemoglobin which carries oxygen around the ​ Liver body ​ Beans Vitamin C ​ Citrus fruits: lemon Making connective tissues - Holding things together ​ Green vegetables Vitamin D ​ Dairy products Helps absorb calcium, leading to stronger bones ​ Fish liver oil ​ Egg yolk Fiber ​ Vegetables and fruits Promotes healthy digestion by helping waste travel ​ Bran smoothly out of the body ​ Lentils Helps shape poo, so it doesnt come out liquidy ​ Indigestable to most mammals, so we consume it from other grass-eating mammals with cellulase bacteria Madde up of cellulose Water ​ Vegetables and fruits Hydration: ​ Regulate body temperature ​ Keep blood stream liquid and smooth ​ Help expel body waste Minerals - Come from platns thoruhg food chain Vitamens - Plants and made in our bodies *Memorize at least two food sources for each group  4)​ Define organic molecules Organic molecules: ​ Carbon-based molecules that exist in all living things and are categorized into: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. ​ Formed from few elements (CHOMPS) ​ Built from a single monomer that joins together to create a large molecule called a polymer ​ Their structure determines their function.  5)​ Describe the structure of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides (CARBOHYDRATE) ​ Monosaccharides - Made up of one carbon ring (CHO) Disaccharides - Combination of two monosaccharides Polysaccharides - More than two disaccharides joined together  Ex: Sucrose is a disaccharide that consists of two monosaccharides, glucose, and fructose, joined together. Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides consisting of many glucose molecules joined together. 6)​ Describe the functions of glucose, starch, cellulose, and glycogen in living organisms (CARBOHYDRATE) Glucose ​ During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose to carry out cellular processes Polysaccharides that use glucose as its monomer: Starch ​ Storage of glucose for plants ○​ Excess glucose made from photosynthesis will be stored in the starch ​ Stored everywhere in the plant, including roots and seeds ​ It is a branched molecule Glycogen ​ Storage of glucose for vertebrates ○​ Excess glucose will be stored in glycogen ​ Usually stored in the liver and muscle cells ​ It is a highly branched-molecule ​ Short-term energy storages. Fats store twice as much as energy compared to fats. Cellulose ​ Cannot be digested by humans ​ Most abundant natural polymer ​ Wall-like molecule structure with no branches ○​ Provides support and strength to plant cells ​ The cell wall is mostly made of cellulose to give structural support 7)​ Describe the structure of lipids Name ​ ​ Structure ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Image Triglycerides ​ Three long chains of carbon atoms (fatty acid) attached to a glycerol molecule ​ One head, three tails ​ Monomer: fatty acid and glycerol Cholesterol ​ One carbon chain attached to four carbon rings ​ Found in red meat and eggs, and used to make hormones ​ Part of the cell membrane 8)​ Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids ​ Each carbon is bonded with as many hydrogens ​ There are one or more double bonds between as possible carbon atoms → saturated with hydrogens → unsaturated with hydrogen ​ Unhealthy fats from animal sources ​ Healthy fats from plant sources ​ Solid at room temperature ​ Liquid at room temperature ​ Bend in backbone from double bonds 9)​ List some major functions of protein in living organisms and describe the structure of proteins. Explain how amino acids can be joined to form an almost infinite variety of different proteins. Amino acids → Polypeptide chains → Protein  ​ 20 different kinds of ​ Amino acids joined ​ When multiple amino acids together in a chain polypeptide chains merge together ​ Order of amino acids determine the protein’s function​ 10)​Describe the cause and symptoms associated with the following deficiencies: constipation, anemia, osteoporosis If you are deficient in… You might develop: Iron Anemia - not having enough red blood cells ​ Pale skin due to loss of blood color ​ Headaches ​ Weakness and dizziness Fiber Constipation - difficulty relieving waste ​ Stomach ​ Bloating ​ Waste that is difficult to excrete (dry and lumpy) Calcium Osteoporosis - Creation of new bone can’t keep up with loss of old boen ​ Loss of height ​ Hunched posture ​ Severe back pain  11)​Explain how human dietary requirements are related to age, sex, and activity Calorie ​ 1 calorie = energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1C ​ 1 calorie = 4.2 kJ ​ Lipids store the most calories The human diet must account for: ​ Physical activity ​ Body mass ​ Age ​ Sex ​ Metabolism ​ External temperature But EVERYONE burns calories with: ​ Basic metabolism ​ Digestion ​ Physical activity 12)​Review Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Monomer Glucose Fatty acid Amino acid Glycerol Example of polymer Starch Triglyciride Polypeptide Glycogen Phospholipids Cellulose Cholesterol Chemical elements CHO CHO CHON  ​ Monosacharide - Ring thats not connected ​ Polysacharide - Rings with long chain ​ Disacharide - Two connected rings ​ Protein - Has N ​ Glucose makes protein, lipids, etc Memorize Glucose, Sucrose, Starch, Fiber, Glycogen Lipids make up.. ​ Phospholipids in cell membrane Structure of phospholids and triglyceride Saturated fat vs unsaturated fat  Digestive and hormones enzymes Interpreting charts NO calculator More carbon bonds = more energy storage capacity Lipids store more energy Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecule because they make up most plant matter Review: ​ Go over the review questions ​ Be able to spell out vocab (someone describes it, you write it) ​ Go over document Polymers broken down into monomers by digestions. Those monomers are used to build other molecules 1)​ Explain why animals need to digest food and distinguish between chemical and mechanical digestion Why? So nutrients can be small enough to pass through the cell membrane and into the bloodstream. Necessary because body needs nutrients to function. Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion ​ Physically breaks down food into smaller pieces ​ Chemically breaks down food molecules into simpler nutrients ​ Happens by chewing of teeth, and contractions of tongue, stomach, and intestines. ​ Happens by enzymes, acid, and bile 2)​ Locate and describe the function of organs in the digestive system Organ/structure Position Function Salivary glands Around the mouth ​ Release saliva to: -​ Lubricate mouth and throat -​ Starch breakdown begins with the enzyme amylase Esophagus Hollow tube connecting mouth ​ Moves food from mouth to stomach by action of to stomach peristalsis Stomach End of esophagus, under liver ​ Protein digestion begins using the enzyme pepsin, which is activated with hydrochloric acid Small intestine Under stomach, within large ​ Nutrient are absorbed (ileum) intestine ​ Transform partially digested food into nutrients (duodenum) Large intestine Around small intestine, ​ Absorbs water and dissolved minerals (colon) connected to anus ​ Holding area for poop (rectum) ​ Appendix is useless Anus End of large intestine ​ Where the stool comes out Pyloric sphincter Between small intestine and ​ Controls flow of partially digested food from stomach stomach to small intestine To control flow: Allow time for the acids to do its jobs Anal sphincter Between anus and outside of ​ Control release of stool body Gallbladder Between the liver and small ​ Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver intestine Bile duct Connecting the liver, ​ Releases bile from the gall bladder to the small gallbladder, and small intestine intestine Pancreas Under the stomach, ​ Produces enzymes (trypsin, lipase, sodium connected to the small bicarbonate, and amylase) that are released into intestine small intestine ​ Produces hormones that regulate blood concentrations  Liver Above the stomach, under the ​ Produces bile diaphragm ​ Makes key chemicals from raw material absorbed by the small intestine ​ (Also detoxification, storage, metabolism) ​ Receives blood from small intestines from the hapatic portal vein ADD PICTURE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 3)​ Explain the role of these digestive secretions, enzymes, and other chemicals Area Gland Secretion Enzymes found in Enzyme action secretion Mouth Salivary Saliva Amylase Amylase + Starch → Maltose glands Mucus Lubricant Stomach Gastric glands Gastric juice Pepsin Pepsin + Protein → Polypeptides Hydrochloric acid Kills some bacteria, activates pepsin Mucus Protects the wall of the gut Small Pancreas Pancreatic Trypsin Trypsin + Proteins and polypeptides → intestine juice peptides Lipase Lipase + fat → fatty acids and glycerol Sodium bicarbonate Reduces acidity of chyme Amylase Amylase + starch → maltose Liver Bile No enzymes Make fat droplets smaller by emulsifying them Wall of small Intestinal juice Peptidases Peptidases + polypeptide and peptides → intestine amino acids  Lipase Lipase + fats → fatty acids and glycerol Sucrase Sucrase + sucrose → glucose, fructose Lactase Lactase + lactose → glucose, galactose Maltase Maltase + maltose → glucose Mucus Protects wall of gut *A+B→C = A breaks down B into C 4)​ Explain the process of emulsification Emulsification - Process of mixing two immiscible liquids with the help of an emulsifier ​ Bile increases the rate of digestion by lipase by breaking down fats into tiny droplets through emulsification ​ Bile brakes the fats into smaller pieces → increase surface area available for reaction 5)​ Explain the role and properties of enzymes and biological catalysts Catalyst - A chemical that speeds up chemical reactions Enzyme - Protein that acts as a biological catalyst by speeding up the rate of digestion ​ Very specific and each catalyzes one reaction (lock and key model) ​ Unaffected by reaction and gets reused Active site - Region on the surface of the enzyme that binds to the substrate molecule Substrate - Molecule that is being broken down into products ​ Enzyme and substrate should match in both shape and chemical properties  Diagram 1: Diagram 2: The substrate is physically Substrate binds to the Diagram 3: close to the active site active site, and an The enzyme and product enzyme-substrate complex dissociate. The enzyme is formed. The enzyme will continue to catalyze speeds up the conversion further reactions. of the substrate into products. 6)​ Explain the effects of changing temperature and pH on enzyme activity Denaturation - Disrupting the chemical bonds that hold together the protein, modifying its shape, including the active site. ​ Negatively affecting the enzyme’s ability to catalyze a reaction. ​ Enzyme function depends on environment Effect of temperature Effect of pH ​ Low temp: Insufficient energy for reaction ​ Optimal temp: Rate of enzyme activity ​ Increasing temp: Increase enzyme activity reaches its peak ​ Optimal temp: Rate of enzyme activity reaches its ​ pH outside of optimal temp: Loss in peak enzyme activity due to denaturation ​ Higher temp: Loss in enzyme activity due to denaturation ​ Symmetrical in shape ​ Not symmetrical in shape Acidic → Alkaline 7)​ Describe peristalsis Peristalsis - Moves food through the digestive system by contracting and relaxing muscles to produce wave-like contractions ​ Occur in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines ​ Food is moved in one direction 8)​ Explain how the structure of the ileum is adapted for absorption, and list the mechanisms by which food molecules are absorbed Function of ileum - Absorb nutrients and further digest Villi ​ Folding of the intestine increases the surface area of the small intestine, making absorption more efficient Villi wall ​ Wall is thin (1 cell), so there is a short distance for absorption from the small intestine into the blood ​ Transport: simple facilitated, and active diffusion Capillaries ​ Network of blood that transports water-soluble end products of digestion: ○​ amino acids, simple sugars, minerals, water, and vitamins ​ into the blood through simple, facilitated, and active diffusion  Lacteal ​ Internal structure that transports fat-soluble end products of digestion: ○​ fatty acids and glycerol ​ into the lymph vessel, then eventually into the bloodstream ​ It transfers into the lacteal through simple diffusion High ​ High nutrient concentration in small intestine concentration ○​ Peristalsis constantly brings nutrients gradient ○​ Chemical digestion keeps producing new nutrients ​ Low nutrient concentration in blood ○​ High blood flow constantly removes and carries nutrients → Nutrients constantly enter the blood through capillaries or lacteal from the small intestine through simple diffusion Based on the solubility of the digested nutrients -​ Not soluble (eg. Fatty acids and glycerol) → Lacteal 9)​ Describe how the gut microbiome is important for health Microbiome - Specific collection of microorganisms in a particular environment ​ Beneficial gut bacteria live in large intestine and small intestine ○​ Break down indigestible substances (ex: fibers) ○​ Break down poisons ○​ Kills harmful bacteria  10)​ Describe the role of the liver in processing absorbed food Excess glucose is Further excess glucose Make non-essential amino Make glucose, fat, and urea converted into is converted into fat acids glycogen ​ Glycogen is ​ Sent to fat stores ​ Non-essential amino ​ CHON (Amino acids) stored inside around the body acids are created from are broken down into liver cells ​ Fats store more amino acids we CHO (glucose and ​ Stimulated by energy per gram consume fat), and N (urea) insulin from the and are efficient pancreas long-term energy storage 11)​State the order in which the body’s energy stores are used when a person is deprived of food We use energy in: metabolism, digestion, and movement 1)​ Glycogen - used for everyday fasting (faster to break down) 2)​ Fat - used for longer-term needs (contains more energy, but harder to break down) 3)​ Muscle protein - used during starvation a)​ Can mean death as muscles play crucial roles in multiple body systems INSULIN AND GLUCAGON PRODUCED BY PANCREAS STIMULATE CONVERSION OF GLUCOSE INTO FAT AND GLYCOGEN, ALSO REVERSAL TOO Extra Vocab/info: ​ Chyme - Fluid/solid mass of partially digested food that passes from the stomach to the small intestine ​ Enzyme reactions often occur in aqueous solutions ​ Essential amino acids - Cannot create and thus must be consumed through diet ​ Non-essential amino acids - Can create from amino acids we consume ​ Duodenum - C shaped thing ​ Ileum - Absorb digestion, and further digests, located near the end of small intestine ​ Colon - Absorbs water to form poop, U-shaped thing that wraps around ​ Appendix - No role, fight bacteria?, thing haning from side ​ Rectum - Holding area for poop ​ Hepatic portal vein - Transfers blood from small intestines to liver ​ Alimentary canal - Food directly passes through ​ Accessory organs - Indirectly helping digestion Todo review:  ​ Check answers on moodle for all worksheets ​ Review diffusion (ex: high concentration gradient) ​ Alimentary canal and accessory organs DIAGRAM OF THE INSULIN GLUCAGON TJING LO4: Reaction cannot occur inside body withouyt enzymes -​ Body heat is not high enough -​ Not enough concentration of reactants All three curves are due to bonds being broken, can only go one way Symetrical shape indicates…. Equal decrease Case: gradual increase Be able to interpret charts of optimal temp. Pg 14 Villi have large surface area to increase absorption of digested nutrients Diffusion and active transport Illeium adapted for intestine Liver process Euidieioeoofjjrjrjirihkekekkrefekwj iLiverLiverLiverLiver Liver Smalll intestine Small intesi iieihedieidwljdk 1)​ Explain the importance of respiration in terms of energy conversions and describe the roles of ATP and ADP Celluar respiration - Series of chemical reactions that transfer chemical energy from food molecules to ATP (reform ADP + P into ATP) ATP - (adenosine triphosphate) Supplies energy for cellular works: ​ Maintaining body temp. ​ Active transport ​ Any muscle contractions ​ Sending nerve impulses ​ Cell division and growth ​ Protein synthesis Key idea: Chemical energy in food molecules transfers to ATP, then converts into __ energy Energy is required to create ATP from ADP, and released when going back to ADP Input energy: Carbohydrates, fats, glucose Output energy: Used for cellular works ATP → ADP + P ADP + P → ATP *The added phosphate in ATP is unstable, so it will quickly break apart and revert back to ADP *ATP is not stored in cells, as it is unstable. Only produced when cells need energy *ADP and ATP are recycled Energy from food 1)​ Glycogen 2)​ Fats 3)​ Muscle protein 2)​ Describe the efficiency of energy transfers of chemical energy stored in food into useful work Metabolism - Chemical processes in an organism that keep it alive. Web of enzyme-controlled reactions, where each reaction is done by a different enzyme  ​ Provide energy for cell activities (growth, reproduction, etc) ​ Build and absorb materials needed by the cell Metabolic pathway - Series of enzyme-controlled reactions that help meet the cells needs Overall efficiency of cell doing work - 25% ​ 50% of food energy is converted into ATP, 50% lost to heat ​ 50% of ATP energy is converted to work, 50% lost to heat  3)​ Define and give examples of aerobic and anaerobic respiration Celluar respiration - Chemical reaction (ATP required) which occurs in all living cells, releasing energy from glucose. Occurs in all animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic respiration Equation Lactic acid fermentation Alcoholic respiration Energy 32 ATP, and considered efficient Glucose is only partially broken down (incomplete released energy production oxidation), so it can only produce 2 ATP Location Inside living cells, in the Inside living cells, in the cytoplasm mitochondria Situation In the presence of oxygen When oxygen is unavailable or limited Gas Take in oxygen and exchange it Yeast would be giving off carbon dioxide but not taking in exchange for carbon dioxide oxygen Examples Organisms: Main organisms: Main organisms: ​ Most animals ​ Some bacteria, human ​ Plants and ​ Some bacteria and muscle cells fungi such as protists ​ Extremophiles yeast (anaerobic bacteria) Situations: Situations: ​ Normal breathing and Situations: ​ Baking (CO2 activity in animals ​ Eg. yogurt, cheese, sour for dough ​ Bacteria in oxygen-rich food rising) and environments ​ Intense physical activity brewing ​ Cellular energy production in humans (muscle (ethanol in in plants contractions) alcohol) ​ Eg. bread, *To meet cell energy demands, wine, beer muscle cells do anaerobic respiration simultaneously *This process is inefficient, temporary, quick, and results in lactic acid build-up Uses to which humans have put fermentation ​ Production of biofuel ​ Production of medicines (eg. penicillin, antibiotics, etc) ​ Production of food (eg. wine, cheese, alcoholic beverages, kimchi, yogurt, etc) ​ Preservation of food ​ Vinegar production ​ Leather tanning 4)​ Difference of combustion and aerobic respiration Combustion Aerobic Speed of Explosive and rapid in the form of heat and Gradual and stored as ATP energy release light Fuel source Hydrocarbon (eg. wood, gasoline, paper) Glucose, fats, protein Control Uncontrolled - rate of combustion cannot be Controlled - rate of reaction is controlled by controlled as everything happens in one enzymes and is done in multiple steps step Temperature High ignition temperature Normal body temperature (37C) requirement Location Can occur anywhere Inside living cells, in the mitochondria  5)​ Explain how bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate) indicator solution can be used to detect different carbon dioxide levels in air, and compare it with a limewater indicator Hydrogen carbonate - pH indicator showing different ranges of colors depending on carbon dioxide gas concentration levels ​ High concentration → More acidic → Yellow ​ Atmospheric concentration → Red ​ Low concentration → More alkaline → Purple Limewater - Becomes cloudy/milky when in contact with carbon dioxide gas Compared to limewater: Limewater only reflects the presence or absence of carbon dioxide gas. At the same time, a hydrogen carbonate indicator gives more specific information: the concentration of the carbon gas (on top of the presence of absence). 6)​ Describe how increasing the size of organisms decreases their surface area to volume ratio and link this to the need for specialized gas exchange surfaces in large animals As an object grows in size, the volume increases more drastically than its surface area →As an object grows in size, its SA:V ratio decreases ​ →As an object grows in size, it will become less efficient at making ATP Decrease the distance for diffusion Specialized gas exchange surfaces in animals ​ Single-celled or thin-bodied organisms with large/sufficient SA:V rely on the outer body surface as a gas exchange surface. (MOST EFFIECIENT) ​ Larger/more active organisms compensate for their low SA:V ratio with… ○​ Mammals, birds, reptiles - lungs ○​ Fish - gills ○​ Insects - tracheal system *Compensation is needed especially for organisms in dry environments, larger bodies, and more active.  7)​ Describe the structure of the human respiratory system *Left lung (two lobes) is smaller than right lung (three lobes) because of heart’s position. 8)​ Explain the mechanism of gas exchange in the alveoli, and explain how the alveoli are adapted for efficient gas exchange Adaptations of alveoli to increase gas exchange ​ Thin layer → Minimizes distance for gas diffusion ​ Surrounded by capillaries → Increase capacity for gas exchange with the blood ​ Circular shape → Maximizes available surface area for gas exchange ​ Layer of fluid → Better able to diffuse into bloodstream Mechanisms of gas exchange in alveoli Gas exchange is a passive process and thus relies on a concentration gradient to maintain a ventilation system. This is done through constant inhalation and exhalation  1)​ Incoming blood capillaries carry waste products after giving out oxygen to respiring cells (High in carbon dioxide, low in oxygen) 2)​ The alveoli have a high concentration of oxygen and a low concentration of carbon dioxide → Concentration gradient between alveoli and capillaries allows carbon dioxide to be expelled, and for oxygen to enter the blood 9)​ Explain the mechanisms of inhalation/inspiration and exhalation/expiration Inhalation/inspiration Exhalation/Expiration Active/passiv ​ Active process, as it At rest Intense physical activity e requires muscles to ​ Passive process ​ Active process contract Muscle ​ Intercostal muscles ​ Lungs return to ​ Intercostal muscles involved contract, moving ribs original shape due contract, moving UP and OUT to elastic tissue ribs DOWN and IN ​ Diaphragm does not ​ The diaphragm muscles ​ Ribs fall due to contract contract and pull it down gravity ​ The diaphragm relaxes, and the abdomen pushes it up +Muscles relax, allowing these to happen Mechanism → Air volume increases in the → Air volume decreases in → Air is forcefully removed thorax, causing air pressure to the thorax, causing air due to pressure gradient, decrease pressure to increase enhanced by muscle contractions. → Pressure gradient → Pressure moves the air in order to gradient moves the equalize the pressure air in order to equalize the pressure 10)​Explain the concept of oxygen debt Oxygen debt - The extra oxygen required to oxidize the built-up excess lactic acid in the muscles after intense exercise. Oxygen deficit - The difference between the ideal oxygen uptake (if the body could instantly adjust) and the real oxygen uptake. VO2 work - Represents oxygen consumption and the oxygen required to sustain the exercise once the body has adjusted (aerobically) Exceeding VO2 work - We rely more on anaerobic respiration as the intensity increading, causing more oxygen debt (more demand over supply). Difference between metabolism and respiration: Metabolism is all reactions in body Respiration is part of it ​ Nitrogen levels in gas exchange do not change because the body does not use it. It will come out as waste products Review: ​ Look through document ​ Get quizzes from online ​ Look through moodle and practice Q + answer ​ Look through moodle and do review Q + answer 1)​ Write a chemical equation, in words and symbols, describing photosynthesis Photosynthesis - Creating organic molecules (eg. glucose) from inorganic molecules (eg. carbon dioxide and water) in the presence of light ​ Process requires a photosynthesis pigment such as chlorophyll ​ Can only occur in certain organisms (plants, seaweeds, algae, and certain bacteria) Carbon dioxide - Enter through holes on the bottom of leaves called stomata Water - Enter through the roots and is transported to the leaves in the xylem GAS EXCHANGE Oxygen - Waste product, leaves through holes on the bottom of leaves called stomata Glucose - Leaves through the phloem where its transported to various parts of the plant to be used as energy or stored as starch. Light energy from the sun → Process of photosynthesis → Synthesis of glucose → Process of celluar respiration → Energy released as ATP  The plant will use ATP for: ​ Active transport ​ Cell division ​ Growth and development ​ Protein synthesis 2)​ Explain the significance of photosynthesis in maintaining the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air, and in converting light energy into chemical energy stored in food. Uses of glucose other than respiration: ​ Plants can convert glucose into cellulose, starch, protein, and lipids ​ Store excess glucose as energy in starch, which they use during the nighttime *Many plants make starch or oil in their seeds for germination (sprouting). Seeds get the energy for growth (cell division) from the already contained energy. 3)​ Describe the position and function of the following parts of a leaf: cuticle, epidermis, palisade, spongy mesophyll, air spaces, stomata, guard cells, veins, xylem, and phloem. Part of a leaf Structure Function Cuticle Wax is secreted by cells of the upper Waterproofs the leaf to prevent water epidermis loss without blocking out light  Upper epidermis -​ Thin and transparent cells -​ Allow light to pass through -​ Contains no chloroplast -​ Barrier to protect internal cells from damage (like skin) Palisade mesophyll -​ Cells are columnar -​ Main region for photosynthesis -​ Packed with chloroplasts -​ Receives CO2 by diffusion from air spaces in spongy mesophyll Spongy mesophyll -​ Cells are spherical and loosely -​ Air spaces between cells allow packed gaseous exchange during -​ Contain fewer chloroplasts than photosynthesis palisade mesophyll’s because it -​ CO2 to cells gets less sunlight -​ O2 from cells Vascular bundle -​ Leaf vein made up of xylem and -​ Xylem vessels: bring water and phloem minerals to the leaf -​ Phloem vessels: transport sugars and amino acids away Lower epidermis -​ Stomata -​ Protective layer Stomata -​ Each stomata is surrounded by -​ Regulates loss of water vapor guard cells that control if its closer (allowing it to escape into the or open atmosphere) -​ Site of gaseous exchange -​ CO2 diffuses in -​ O2 diffuses out 4)​ Describe the role of chlorophyll and chloroplasts in photosynthesis. Explain how absorbing mainly red and blue light makes chlorophyll green  Chlorophyll - Green pigment responsible for light absorption. Located inside chloroplasts Colors -Different wavelengths of white light (electromagnetic spectrum) that ranges from red (~700 nm) to violet (~400 nm). The color we see are wavelengths reflected (not absorbed) Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red wavelengths most strongly, and reflects the green portion of the spectrum most strongly. → Green color in leaves 5)​ Explain how gas exchange is not equal throughout 24 hours in a plant Rate of In the day At night Photoshynthesis Increasing light intensity → increasing rate of Decreasing light intensity → photosynthesis decreasing rate of photosynthesis When rate of photosynthesis is higher than ​ Net release of carbon dioxide the rate of respiration, (more CO2 released than ​ Net release of oxygen absorbed) ​ Net uptake of carbon dioxide ​ Net uptake of oxygen (more oxygen absorbed than released) Respiration Remains constant Remains constant *Net something happens when there is an imbalance in values Compensation points - Time of day when there is an equal exchange of CO2 and O2.  6)​ Interpret graphs showing how changes in variables such as light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis. Explain the term limiting factor, and list factors that may limit photosynthesis. Limiting factors - Factors that can limit the rate of photosynthesis if it is in short supply. The increase in the amount of the limiting factor would increase the rate. Limiting factors for photosynthesis: ​ Chlorophyll ​ Minerals to make chlorophyll ​ Reactants: CO2 and H2O ​ Light ​ Adequate temperature for the reaction to proceed *Look at the x-axis to figure out the limiting factor 7)​ Define transpiration, explain its advantages and disadvantages, and explain how a leaf can control its water loss Transpiration - Loss of water vapor from plants. Most times are lost through the stomata since the waxy cuticle leaves let through little water. Kind of like a side effect of photosynthesis 1)​ Water evaporates from the cell walls into the air spaces 2)​ Water vapor diffuses out of the stomata, down the concentration gradient Advantages Disadvantages ​ Cool leaves and prevent overheating ​ Lead to water loss → wilting of plant (evaporative cooling) → eventually plasmosis ​ Sucks water up the xylem (provides water and dissolved minerals) ​ Provides water to keep cells turgid (support) *Transpiration is inevitable since the stoma has to be open for gas exchange. We can manage water loss by opening it at cool times of the day ​ Transpiration rate is controlled by the guard cells. Restrict water loss so that the cells don’t die. -​ Central vacuole releases water → flacid guard cells -​ Central vacuole with added water → turgid guard cells When do stoma.. Open Close -​ During the day, to provide CO2 for -​ At night, when there is no photosynthesis photosynthesis -​ The plant has enough water and can -​ During water stress, to prevent water  afford to lose some loss -​ CO2 levels inside the plant are low -​ CO2 levels are already high enough 8)​ Describe how potometers can be used to measure transpiration rates Potometer - Device used to estimate transpiration rates Errors: -​ A small amount of water is used in photosynthesis -​ A small amount of water is used to maintain the turgidity of plant cells 9)​ Describe how roots absorb water from the soil and how water is transported from the roots to the leaves Transpiration Stream Root hair cell → Tissue layers → Xylem → Leaves → Out of the stoma Xylem - Vascular tissue in plants that transports water and dissolved minerals upwards from the root. ​ Made up of dead cells → Passive process in one direction ​ Wood is made of old xylem tubes **Root hair cells can absorb dissolved ions through:  -​ Facilitated diffusion through proteins in their membranes -​ Active transport requires ATP, but allows them to go against ca oncentration gradient *Depends on the concentration gradient **Root hair cells also need oxygen (from soil) to respire and produce ATP for growth and active transport 10)​Explain mineral uptake and why plants require a source of nitrogen and magnesium Nitrogen - Needed to make amino acids (CHON) Magnesium - Needed to make the chlorophyll molecule **Farmers add fertilizers to replenish these minerals removed by previous crops 11)​Describe how phloem transports sugars from mature photosynthesising leaves to all other parts of the plant Translocation - Movement of organic compounds (eg. glucose) from sources to sinks Source - Where the organic compounds are made (eg. leaves) Sinks - Where the compounds are delivered for storage (eg. roots, seeds, flowers) The roots also need ATP to do active transport -where do they get it from? They get the glucose from the phloem and respire using oxygen in the soil? Water is lost through transpiration because when the stomata open, the moist internal cells of the leaf are exposed to the drier and warmer outside air. This temperature and humidity difference causes water to evaporate from the leaf’s surface and then diffuse out through the stomata. A plant will rely on starch at night, when there is no photosynthesis happening (no glucose being made). Respiration will use that starch to produce ATP Q: Where does the water vapor for transpiration come from  Substance Comes From Goes Out Through / Used For CO₂ (Carbon Air → enters via stomata Used in photosynthesis dioxide) Water (H₂O) Soil → absorbed by roots Used in photosynthesis + excess lost via transpiration Light Energy Sunlight → absorbed by Powers photosynthesis chlorophyll O₂ (Oxygen) Product of photosynthesis Exits via stomata Water Vapor (H₂O) From water inside leaves Exits via stomata during transpiration Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) Product of photosynthesis Used by plant for energy or stored as starch