AP World History Notes - Unit Summaries & Key Concepts PDF

Unit 1 1200-1450 Developments in Song Dynasty 960 - 1279 Main Idea - How did the Song Dynasty maintain & justify its rule? (run its state & stay in charge)? Power in Song China I. Confucianism - The Song Dynasty carried over a revival of Confucianism from the Tang Dynasty which came right before the Song. → since it’s “new” → Neo-Confucianism → since “new” = change → Neo-Confucianism: Sought to rid Confucian thought of the influence of Buddhism (which had influenced it significantly in the prior centuries. - Confucianism = a philosophy that taught human society is hierarchical by nature, wanting to say that, there is a prescribed & proper order to everything (citizens → state, women→ men, children→ parents) ○ important part: Filial Piety: Emphasized the necessity and virtue of children obeying and honoring their parents, grandparents, and deceased ancestors. Shows how powerful a philosophy like this would be for binding Chinese society Women in Song China - Women were relegated to the subordinate position I. Stripped of legal rights II. Endured social restrictions only had access to limited education made to endure the practice of foot binding II. Expansion of the Imperial Bureaucracy Bureaucracy - A gov. entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor during Song Dynasty, imperial bureaucracy grew in scope and helped them maintain rule to be in the bureaucracy → civil service examinations → so bureaucratic jobs earned by merit Civil service examinations → Imperial Bureaucracy jobs → song dynasty open to all economic backgrounds but only rich ppl afforded to not work & study - Chinese traditions influenced neighboring: Korea, Japan, Vietnam ○ Korea: used similar civil service examinations & adopted Buddhism Buddhism: Center on the Four Noble Truths - Life is suffering - We suffer because we crave - We cease suffering when we cease craving - The Eightfold Path leads to the cessation of suffering & craving Once now Buddhism emerged → it spread into new places New branches of Buddhism: I. Theravada Buddhism - Sri Lanka: consecrated to only those in monasteries II. Mahayana Buddhism - East Asian bodhisattvas (ppl who all got enlightenment) aimed to share and help others New justifications of Buddhism arose as belief system interacted w/ diff Asian cultures Economy in Song China I. Commercialization of Economy manufacturers, artisans, began to produce more goods than they consumed ○ sold excess goods in markets in china & across Eurasia Important goods they traded: Porcelain & Silk! II. Agricultural Innovation Champa Rice: matured early, resisted drought, & could be harvested multiple times/year III. Transportation Innovations Expansion of the Grand Canal: Facilitated trade & comm. among China’s various regions Developments in Dar-al-Islam (House of Islam) in the heartland two other religions were prevalent Monotheistic Religions I. Judaism - Ethnic religion of Jews II. Christianity - established by the Jewish prophet Jesus Christ III. Islam - Founded by prophet Muhammad Wherever religion was preserved → used to shape society. Leading up to 1200: dominantly Abbasid Caliphate was ethnically Arab. By 1200, Abbasid Caliphate began to break up Muslim empires still around, but now the dominant empires were led by ethnic Turks not Arabs While the Abbasids remained in power to a more limited degree “claiming to be religious figurehead for Islam”, It was the Seljuks who came to power Now wearing the pants of power in the religion During the period 1200-1450, the dominance of Arab Muslims empires was fading while Turkic Muslim empires rose up to replace them. Turkic empires - continuity: I. Military administered their states II. Established Sharia Law - legal code based on Quran Nasir al-Din al-Tusi - invented trig. Muslim scholars translated Plato & Aristotle (Greece) to Arabic - Done in House of Wisdom in Baghdad, established under Abbasid “Golden Age of Islam” - Renaissance happened b/c Muslims preserved Greek works. Expansion of Muslim Rule I. Military Expansion (Seljuk, Mamluck, Delhi Sultanates) II. Muslim Merchants (North Africa: ruled by Muslim → trade & merchants in Africa) West Africa: Empire of Mali became Islamic b/c of trade access to dar-al-Islam III. Muslim Missionaries (Sufis) → conversion effected on South Asia South and Southeast Asia Three Belief Systems: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam South Asia: Buddhism died down so Hinduism → #1 Islam → #2 Bhakti Movement I. Innovation on traditional polytheistic lit Hinduism - Polytheism = the act of worshipping many gods - Bhakti Movement emphasized the devotion to just one of the Hindu Gods II. Mounted challenges to social & gender hierarchies Southeast Asia: Buddhism & Islam State Building South Asia: Delhi Sultanate ruled much of north India but had trouble holding on to power. Hindu against Muslim existence: Rajput Kingdoms In South, Vijayanagara empire against Muslim in North India → Muslims first sent ppl to South, but then they became Hindu again and made Hindu rival empire Southeast Asia: sea based & land based kingdoms. Sea-based: Majapahit Kingdom- maintained power by controlling sea routes for trade, - declined when China supported Majapahit trading rival: Sultanate of Malacca. Land-based: Khmer Empire (First Hinduism then Buddhist) transformation of religions seen in Angkor Wat (stands for religious Cont. + Change over time) State Building in the Americas Mainly lived in: Meso America & Andean Civilizations Meso America: Aztec Empire (1324) Tenochtitlan Aztec Administration (relied on tributary relationships) I. Created an elaborate system of tribute states - the ppl they conquered had to provide labor for Aztecs & regular contributions of goods like food, animals, building materials, etc. II. Enslaved ppl played large role in religion - Many became candidates for human sacrifice Andean Civilizations - Inca Empire (1400s): elaborate bureaucracy - rigid hierarchy of officials Mit’a System - Required all people under their rule to provide labor on state projects like large state farms, military, military service, state construction projects, etc. ★ The Aztecs were mostly decentralized in how they ruled and the Inca were highly centralized. Mississippian culture (first large scale civilization in North America) Around Mississippi River Valley → soil very good → focused on agriculture Mississippian power structure In terms of state building among the Mississippians, large towns dominated smaller, satellite settlements politically. (monumental mounds - chose ppl) State building in Africa. East Africa → Swahili civilization (cities organized on trade along coast) Swahili Civilization I. Politically independent w/ common social hierarchy - put the merchant elite above commoners II. Deeply influenced by Muslim traders - New language, Swahili, emerged - descended from indigenous African Bantu langs., but used Arabic alphabet & script ★ Swahili demonstrates intermingling & cooperation of multiple cultures. ★ As a result of Muslim influence, the Swahili states rapidly became Islamic which only increased their integration into the larger Islamic world of trade West Africa: Ghana, Mali, Songhay. mostly the elite converted to Islam, majority stuck to original beliefs. Hausa Kingdoms → not centralized more like city-states (like Swahili) Great Zimbabwe (1200-1450) massive structures, Africa’s role grew from trade. ★ With the increased African and international trade being processed through the Great Zimbabwe, it grew exceedingly wealthy and shipped to mainly gold exports. ★ Unlike west & east africa city-states, rulers & people in Zimbabwe did not convert to Islam, kept their indigenous shamanistic religion - Kingdom of Ethiopia - only Christian state Developments in Europe Christianity in Europe I. Eastern Orthodox II. Roman Catholicism Byzantine Empire → eastern orthodox christianity Kievan Rus carried the system forward when Byzantine was declining. - orthodox christianity adoption connected ppl & trade. Western Europe- Roman Catholicism, after fall of Roman Empire, western split into several decentralized states But, * Roman Catholicism linked every state culturally. ★ Muslims & Jews still had influence on Europe - Al-Andalus - Iberian peninsula conquered by Muslims. → Anti-semitism kept Jews on outskirts ★ During this period, decentralization & political fragmentation was the political flavor of Europe. - Feudalism → system of allegiances b/w powerful lords, monarchs, knights - vassals received land from their lords in exchange for military service - Manorialism - smaller scale - Manor: piece of land owned by lord, rented by peasants who worked on it. serfs → peasants bound to land & worked in exchange for protection/military forces ★ the center of political and economic powers was in the hands of landowning lords. Unit 2 (1200-1450) *Networks of exchange Networks of exchange- not only were merchants carrying goods for sale across these routes, but they also brought their religion and their languages & technologies. *networks → economic & cultural diffusion Major Networks compared: Silk Roads + Indian Ocean Network + Trans-Saharan Trade geographical range of all these networks expanded in the 1200-1450 period range of these networks expanded due to innovations in commercial practices & technological innovations Increased connectivity btw all these places caused various states to grow wealthy and powerful due to their participation in these networks Increased interconnectivity caused the rise of powerful trading cities while also causing the collapse of other cities. The Silk Roads Luxury goods trading network that stretched across Eurasia Chinese silk & porcelain → This increased demand caused an increase in production of these goods by Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans. I. Innovations facilitated the expansion of these networks ○ Transportation technologies - Caravanserai ○ caravanserai brought merchants from all diff. cultures and backgrounds together & that created the occasion for significant transfers, culturally or technologically. Commercial Practices - Money Economies (paper money) “Flying Money” - Chinese ○ Credit (Banking Houses) II. Inc. in trade led to the rise of powerful trading cities that grew & flourished precisely b/c they were located along these routes As trade on Silk Routes expanded, so did Kashgar in wealth Indian Ocean Network I. A thorough understanding of monsoon winds made trade along the network possible → Indian ocean merchants figured out that winds blew in one direction or the other depending on the season. II. A large bulk of what was traded along these routes included more common goods like textiles and spices. → a hull of ship hold more cargo than back of a camel. Expansion: technological innovations + innovations in commercial practices. Causes of Expansion I. Magnetic Compass → Helped merchants know which direction to sail in II. Astrolabe → tool for measuring the stars, then comparing to star charts (which helped estimate a region longitude) III. New ship designs - “Chinese Junk” IV. Various forms of Credit Effect of Expansion I. Growth of states → Swahili city-states; A collection of independent city-states along Africa’s east coast, acted as brokers for goods originating from the African interior (gold + ivory + enslaved people) These city-states grew significantly in power and wealth. → became Islamic & got connected into the larger (trade) world of Dar-al-Islam II. Diasporic Communities - a settlement of ethnic ppl in a loc. other than their homeland → Arab and Persian communities established in East Africa III. New language Emerged - Swahili language Zheng He: sent by China’s Ming Dynasty to go throughout the Indian Ocean, enrolling states in China’s tributary system. → China’s advanced maritime tech. especially navigation tools and shipbuilding methods were spread to the places Zheng He went. Trans-Saharan Trade Network (Africa) (1200-1450: expanded) Expanded due to innovations in transportation technologies ○ Camel saddles: helped carry bigger loads across desert. Participation in this network led to the inc. wealth & power of various states. - Empire of Mali (turning point: conversion of its leadership to Islam in 13th century) → Which folded the state into the exceedingly prosperous merchant network that dominates Islam. In this period, Mali grew rich via trade of gold & taxing merchants in West Africa. → Reached highest in 14th century under Mansa Musa. Effects / Consequences of Connectivity Cultural effects I. Transfer of Religion or Belief Systems Buddhism (originating in South Asia, entered China via silk roads carried by merchants and missionaries) II. Literary & Artistic Transfers ○ Islamic scholars in Baghdad & House of Wisdom - Translated Greek & Roman classics to Arabic - Interacted w/ communities on the works (incl. re-found/develop. in philosophy + practices) - works were later transferred to Europe which led to the Renaissance. III. Scientific & Technological Innovations → Gunpowder ○ Invented in China, thru networks of exchange, spread to Muslim Empires and then Eastern European states saw the powder when Mongols came to them. IV. Rise and Fall of Cities ○ Hangzhou in China (sat at one end of grand canal facilitating trade): so, became inc. wealthy & inc. urbanized ○ Baghdad (got utterly destroyed by Mongols in 13th century militaries en route. V. Travelers wrote about their experiences. ○ Ibn Battuta (Morocco Muslim scholar, traveled & took note of Dar al Islam for 30 yr) since he wrote abt it, it gave scholars first hand account of life all over Dar al Islam Environmental effects I. Transfer of Crops - Champa rice - new strain of rice introduced to China via Champa Kingdom who offered it to China as part of the tribute system. II. Transfer of Disease - Bubonic Plague (first in China, 1331) spread via routes, mainly Mongols The Mongol Empire - 4 Khanates entire empire facilitated all these connections I. Established largest land-based empire of all time ○ Song, Abbasid Dynasties fell to the Mongols. II. Networks of exchange increased significantly ★ The Silk Roads flourished most when large empires controlled the routes → bc they could provide safety & continuity along them ★ Entire Eurasian world came under their domination ★ Encouraged international trade and extracted great wealth as the facilitators of commerce of the Silk Roads ★ Mongols paid more for foreign goods & ensured safety of travelers too. ○ The Mongols facilitated an unprecedented inc. in communication and cooperation across their empire. ○ Persian and Chinese courts exchanged emissaries & artisans → Trade increased btw both sides of the Mongol empire. III. Facilitated technological and cultural transfers - Technological - created conditions for transfer of Greek & Islamic medical knowledge to Western Europe - Cultural - adopted the Uyghur script (became prevalent thru policy, diplomacy, exchange) *Tip from heimler: When unsure of answer, or LEQ, write abt Ottomans Unit 3 (1450-1750) Land Based Empires: Expansion, Administration, Belief Systems Land Based Empire: An empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings ★ The big idea to get here is that in the time period 1450-1750, land based emp. were expanding. 4 major empires: Ottoman Empire (started in 14th century) Expanded b/c of gunpowder weapons With this, controlled Southwestern Europe and Anatolia by begin. of 15th century 1453 → Islamic Ottomans captured Constantinople and renamed it to Istanbul (Constantinople was main part of once great Roman Empire; when it fell door opened to continue their expansion to Eastern Europe. In Europe, got Christian boys from military group (elite fighting force—Janissaries) Safavid Empire (Middle East) (founded begin 16th century) Under Shah Ismail, conquered neighboring territories and expanded Shah Abbas built Safavid military including adoption of gunpowder Shah got boys from Caucus region to become high skilled soldiers → helped expansion Safavid + Ottoman Similarities = small first, rapid expansion, gunpowder, enslaved military forces, Muslim BUT, Safavid: Shia Muslim Ottomans: Sunni Muslim Sunnis believed that the rightful successor of Muhammad could be anyone spiritually fit for the office while Shi’a believed only blood relatives of Muhammad were successors Mughal Empire (first half of 16th century) (Muslim) (Sunni) 1526: Babur rose to leadership led against Delhi Sultanate; wiped it. Expanded w/ gunpowder weapons Akbar, Babur’s grandson, expanded empire to most all of India Akbar was tolerant of Hindus & w/ amazing administration became of the most prosperous Qing Dynasty / Manchu Empire First Mongols/Yuan Dynasty, then Ming Dynasty full of Hans (fall of own people) Manchu, people of the North came and conquered w/ gunpowder weapons Empires Compared I. Land-Based II. Expanded Rapidly III. Used Gunpowder to Expand IV. Ethnically different from subject - qing/mughal - safavids/ottomans Rivalries Between Empires Safavid-Mughal Conflict → Mughals were fighting somewhere else so Safavids took over territory (whole todal?) → Religious element b/c Safavid Shia; & Mughal Sunni Administration of Empires (How rulers legitimize & consolidated their power) legitimized: methods a ruler uses to establish their authority consolidated: methods a ruler uses to transfer power from other groups to themselves Administrative Methods I. Formation of Large Bureaucracies ○ Bureaucracies: the thousands of gov. officials that ensure laws are kept + govt moves ○ Devshirme System - Ottomans used this system to staff their bureaucracy w/ highly trained individuals. Top performers were appointed to elite positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy. II. Development of Military Professionals ○ Janissaries in Ottoman Empire III. Religious Ideas, Art, & Monumental Architecture ○ Europe: monarchs started to gain more and more power through the Divine Right of Kings: The idea that monarchs were God’s representative on Earth ○ Art: Qing Dynasty, Emperor Kangxi used imperial portraits of himself with Books of Confucian wisdom in the background to convince them(self) that, although he was Manchu, he was good Chinese ruler ○ Monumental Architecture: sun temple - cuzco (Inca) in this temple, high religious festivals were held and since Incan rulers associated w/ gods, legitimated power Palace of Versailles (France, Louis 14th): Required French nobility to live here so Louis could keep an eye while they competed for his attention Before, French nobility had more power, so this helped w/ transfer power to Louis IV. Innovations on Tax Collection Systems - Zamindar System (employed by Mughal Empire) zamindars = elite landowners who were granted authority to tax peasants (msg on their land on behalf of the imperial government) - Tax Farming (Ottomans) The right to tax subjects of the empire was auctioned to the highest bidder - Tribute Lists (Aztec rulers) Wherever Aztecs conquered, they sent lists to the places they conquered of things they needed to give Belief Systems of Empires (how stayed same & changed) By this period, church (Roman Catholic Church = Power) became corrupt Church Corruption I. Simony - people buying their way into positions of power in the church II. Sale of Indulgences - People paying money to get their sins forgiven Martin Luther, wrote 95 theses to address these corrupt practices - excommunicated from the church - printing press, new innovation, spread Luther’s ideas to all Europe - As more people agreed w/ Luther, big change in Christianity Christianity (Both reformations led to significant growth of Christianity in Europe) Change → Protestant Reformation - At Council of Trent, Catholics cleaned up the corruption Protestants were complaining - But also reaffirmed their doctrine of salvation was fine Islam I. Shah Ismail declared that the Safavid Empire would adhere to Shi’a Islam - Put them at odds w/ other Sunni Muslim Empires in the area - Aggravated & intensified the split between these two branches - A division of Safavid military enforced to make sure everyone used (Muhammad’s successors) Sikhism: A syncretic blend of Hindu and Islamic doctrines Continuity: Retained several important doctrines - Belief in one God, --> cycle of reincarnation and death Change: Discarded gender hierarchies of Islam - Discarded the caste system of Hinduism Unit 4 1450-1750 Maritime Empires Causes of European Exploration I. Adoption and Innovation of Maritime Technologies Technologies came from Greek, Islamic, and Asian worlds ○ Magnetic compass: China ○ Astrolabe: Ancient Greece and Arab world ○ Helped sailors know their latitude ○ Lateen sail: Arab world ○ Enabled to use wind on both sides. Europeans made their own innovations in shipbuilding ○ Portuguese Caravel made easier for rivers, small bodies, oceans Improved understanding of regional wind patterns in Atlantic & Indian II. Growth of State Power Because of centralization of power monarchs played a role in economics. Monarchs wanted spices from Asia but they became expensive by the time ★ European states had a big incentive to find other routes, namely sea-based routes, to Asia which would allow them to trade on their own III. Economic Mercantilism: A state-driven economic system that characterized imperial European states during this period ○ Mercantilists wanted to get as much gold/silver in the world Favorable Balance of Trade: When states organize their economies around exports and avoid imports as much as possible ○ Colonies existed to enrich their imperial parents (closed market for exports) ○ Joint Stock Company: A limited liability business, often chartered by the state, that was funded by a group of private investors Investors, who pooled their money to finance the exploration could anything material ○ States relied on merchants to expand their influence in far-off lands while merchants relied on states to grant them monopolies on various regions of trade Dutch East India Company (VOC) - dominated Indian Ocean → MONEY. Establishing Maritime Empires First Euro state: Portugal by Prince Henry the Navigator ○ Went down along Africa and to Indian Ocean; establishing ports ○ Established Trading Post Empire! → (able to do so b/c of caravel b/c loaded w/ cannons ○ So, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to look for route westward →Spain immediately colonized Americas, started Trans-Atlantic trade → Spain also colonized Philippines: Tribute collecting, coerced labor France in hopes of finding a way to Asia toured & dominated Canada ○ Gave them access to Fur Trade England, Queen Elizabeth I, sponsored exploration, Sir Walter Raleigh to Americas ○ Roanoke Island → then Jamestown Dutch gained independence from Spain, most prosperous in Europe ○ Dutch’s strategic locations throughout Indian Ocean & monopoly of spice trade The Columbian Exchange: The transfer of new diseases, foods, plants, and animals btw Eastern & Western hemispheres → ENVIRONMENTAL PHENOMENA I. Disease - Europeans introduced smallpox and measles to the Americas - Malaria carried by disease vectors like mosquitos (Great Dying) II. Food and Plants - Greatly affected populations both in the New World and the Old World → More food + better nutrition → longer lifespan & population inc. Cash cropping - a method of agriculture that focuses on growing crops, usually a single crop, primarily for export. III. Animals - Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, and cattle to the Americas → By far the most consequential animal was the horse. → Horse: agricultural & helped indigenous hunt more effectively. Resistance to Imperial Expansion/ Resistance to Imperialism I. Resistance from some Asian states against the intrusion of western powers in the Indian Ocean. - Tokugawa Japan: first was open to foreigners for gunpowder/economics but since their reason was to spread Christianity, many converted which made shogun mad w/ violence, isolated them, growing influence = reform = Dutch II. Resistance on the local level in European states themselves. - The Fronde: French nobles & peasants led rebellion(s) against taxations and ruling of Monarch in Palace (Absolutism) III. Resistance from the enslaved - Brazil & Columbia filled w/ enslaved people, but free ppl lived - Maroon societies - Jamaica: Queen Nanny revolted against troops who wanted larger control than area ○ signed a treaty b/c they could not fight the comm. of imperial powers. Effect: expansion of African states - The expansion of maritime trading networks also fostered the growth of some African states who participated in them; thus connecting these states to global economic linkages these networks represented, even if the networks were becoming increasingly European-centered. - Asante Empire - provided gold, ivory, enslaved ppl w/ Europeans → wealth led to more power in region and expand military - Kingdom of the Kongo - gave gold, copper, enslaved ppl → converted to Christianity to facilitate trade w/ Europeans, wealth in beginning Change and Continuity in Networks of Exchange → Indian Ocean Network - Change: Entrance and massive power grabs of European States into the network - Continuity - Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian & Southeast Asian merchants continued to use Indian Ocean Networks. ★ European entrance into the trade network = profits not only for Europeans but also for many of the merchants who had always used the networks for trade. Indian Ocean Networks Continuity: Long established merchants like the Gujaratis cont. to make use of Indian Ocean Network - B/c obviously, Portuguese never got full domination. - Despite growing European dominance on the sea, overland routes like the Silk Roads were still almost entirely controlled by various Asian land-based powers - most notably Ming China (Qing) and Ottoman Empire. - peasant and artisan labor continued in many regions as demand for food and consumer goods increased as a result of multiplying trade connections ○ cotton wanted in (Europeans), South Asians were producers for export → same for silk production in China Change: Atlantic System I. Opening of the Atlantic System → the movement of goods, wealth, and laborers btw the Eastern & Western hemispheres made Europeans rich and powerful II. Sugar (Caribbean → Atlantic → Europe’s demand) III. Silver (Spanish mined silver in Americas & sent back to Spain) → Effects of Silver I. Silver was used to purchase luxury goods from China - satisfied the Chinese demand for silver - further developed the commercialization of China’s economy II. Goods that silver purchased were traded on the Atlantic System - further enriched all who participated IV. Coerced Labor (forced indigenous labor, indentured servants, majority African slaves) ★ The massive changes that occurred in the opening of the Atlantic system was maintained by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by states to joint-stock companies. Changes in Labor Systems - In Americas, mainly agriculture and mining ○ Existing system that continued: Mit’a system - Mit’a system: Developed & deployed by the Inca empire - required their subjects to provide labor on state project for a certain # of days / year. → Spanish came and used similar copy of mit’a for mining silver - Inca used for good, Spanish used for own benefit New Labor Systems I. Chattel Slavery - Slavery in which purchaser has total ownership over enslaved person → Race-based & hereditary - In Mediterranean, Trans Saharan, & Indian networks, enslavement was not race-based & enslaved people often assimilated into the cultures where they worked Effects of Chattel Slavery I. Europeans purchased male slaves 2:1 → main economic engine of imperial empires in the Americas was difficult agricultural work & mining → significantly impacted the demographics of various African states II. Size of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade > Indian Ocean & Mediterranean counterparts III. Racial component of Atlantic Slave System → In the Americas, slavery became identified w/ blackness → provided justification for the brutality of slavery African Slave Trade - Social Effects I. Significant gender imbalance → esp. in West African States II. Changing Family Structures → Rise of polygyny: men marrying more than one woman III. Cultural Synthesis → Growing emergence of creole lang. in the Caribbean & Brazil. II. Indentured servitude → Laborers would sign contracts that bound them to a particular work for a period of time. (usually 7 years) → At the end of the contract, the laborer could go free. III. Encomienda system - used Spanish to divide Indigenous Americans among Spanish settlerS - Americans forced to provide labor for Spanish for based, protection - kind of Feudalism IV. Hacienda - Indigenous laborers forced to work fields of large plantations (“haciendas”) → a situation not much diff. than slavery - Encomienda had nothing to do w/ land ownership and everything to do w/ controlling the Indigenous population - Hacienda centered on land ownership as the main vehicle for controlling the Indigenous population Effects: Changing Belief Systems - Spain & Portugal want everyone to be Christian → Sent Jesuits to colonies to convert. (Catholic missionaries - Indigenous outwardly adopted Christianity, secretly practiced their own The effects of all of this was a religious syncretism that resulted in a blending of some Christian beliefs & practices/Indigenous one. → Vodun Animist Effects: Changing Social Hierarchies. I. Ethnic & Religious Diversity - Jews went to Portugal from Spain then to Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II, so Jews rose in prominence in Ottoman court II. Rise of New Political Elites - Spanish imposed a new social hierarchy known as the casta system on their colonial holdings in the Americas - organized colonial society into a series of ranks based on race & ancestry - Prior to the imposing of the casta system, native ppls were part of a wide variety of linguistic & cultural groups → Casta - The casta system erased much of that complexity and ordered their society by the standards of a small minority of Spanish elite. Effects: Changing Social Hierarchies CONTD II. Rise of New Political Elites contd - Transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty in China. III. Struggle of Existing Elites - Russian boyars made up the aristocratic land-owning class of Russia - Peter the Great was an absolutist and took away power from boyars. Unit 5 1750-1900 Political & Industrial Revolution The Enlightenment → caused revolutions ↳ Enlightenment: An intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding such as rationalism and empiricism approaches, to both the natural world and human relationships ★ Just as the methods & discoveries of the Scientific Revolution challenged the role of religion in public life, so too did the Enlightenment ★ Enlightenment thinkers rejected external authority and taught that real authority comes from inside a person, not outside Enlightenment Ideas I. The Individual - The individual was the most basic unit of society, not collective group II. Natural Rights → Given by God not monarch - Human beings are born w/ certain rights; namely life, liberty, & property III. Social Contract - Govs. are created by the people in order to protect their natural rights IV. Popular Sovereignty - The power to govern is in the hands of the people V. Democracy - A system in which all people had the right to vote & direct the operations of their gov. VI. Liberalism - A political and economic ideology that emphasizes: → Protection of civil rights, necessity of a representative gov., protection of private property and an Emphasis on free markets as the basis of freedom Effects of Enlightenment I. Expansion of Suffrage - right to vote II. Women’s suffrage - It’s during this period that a burgeoning feminist movement arises and women begin to demand equality in all areas of life, not least voting → Olympe de Gouges wrote: The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen III. Abolition of Slavery IV. Abolition of Serfdom - Tsar Alexander II adopted a more western and liberal mindset, → abolished serfdom Causes of Revolutions I. Nationalism - a sense of community among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, & often linked w/ desire for territory → As nationalism takes hold, people who share cultural traits and ethnicities want to rule themselves II. Discontent w/ Monarchist and Imperial Rule - Egypt: technically part of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century & largely operated independently due to military gov. led by Ali - Ali acted independently of Ottoman sultan → made steps toward industrialization → opened textile and weapon factories Atlantic Revolutions I. American Revolution - Declaration of Independence from Enlight. ideas → Americans assisted by the French, they won and created USA → Set up as a republic → Inspired French Revolution: Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen II. Haitian Revolution (Haiti most prosperous French colony!) - blacks heard of French telling abt equality etc in France in the west. → Toussaint L’Ouverture, rebelled, won, 2nd republic & 1st black gov. Atlantic Revolutionsn CONTD III. Latin American Revolutions - Spanish & Portuguese colonies started to adopt enlightenment ideas and not like the power of their imperial parents - When Napoleon invaded Spain & King of Portugal deposed - Simon Bolivar (Creole military leader) created vision for Latin America in Letter from Jamaica ○ called Spain’s political rivals in Europe to support their cause for Ind. ○ attempted to persuade Latin American nations to unite in the cause of throwing off Spanish colonial dominance Nationalist Movements and Unification - Other Nationalist Movements I. Calls for Greater Degrees of Self-Rule → Propaganda Movement in the Philippines ○ Spanish colony at the time ○ did not call for revolution against the Spanish ○ called for more Philippine involvement in how their society was run ○ Spanish smacked it down which led to Philippine movement II. Effort Toward Unification → Inspired by nationalistic fervor → happening in Italy and Germany The Industrial Revolution (7 factors) started in Great Britain ★ These seven factors are important b/c it is the presence or absence of these factors that will later determine where and what speed industrialization will spread to other places Factors for Industrialization I. Proximity to Waterways II. Distribution of Coal, Iron, and Timber III. Access to Foreign Resources → beginning was focused on textile & cloth production → had massive access to giant fields of raw cotton (India) → asset IV. Improved Agricultural Technology → more tech = more food → massive pop. growth V. Urbanization → rural people to cities VI. Legal Protections of Private Property → made laws that protected entrepreneurs to start & build businesses VII. Accumulation of Capital Industrial shift → factories made things → mass produced for cheap → First need to be built by water → Through steam engine, factories can be built anywhere → specialization of labor, need for skilled labor declined → one part of plant process Global share of manufacturing ( Industrial states is growing → Non-industrial regions decreasing) Industrialization Spreads ★ As industrialization spread beyond Britain, there were some places that industrialized quickly & others that industrialized slowly/not at all ★ The difference btw the two was the degree to which each place possessed the aforementioned seven factors → One of big effects → shift in the world’s geographical distribution of manufacturing → Industrial states got a more of a share (much was being made & sold that world) → Indian & Egyptian market share declined French Industrialization I. 1815: Industrialization Arrived in France → slow to adapt due to relative lack of coal and iron deposits II. Government Played a Role → sponsored the construction of railroads and canals → made it convenient to sell goods once they were made III. Pace of Industrialization was slower → Avoided major social upheavals that were more common in Britain U.S. Industrialization I. Large Territory → Allowed for abundant access to natural resources II. Political Stability Post-Civil War III. Growing Population → Provided an expanding market for mass-produced goods IV. Prosperous Economy Russian Industrialization I. Remained Under Rule of Absolutist Czar II. State-Driven Industrialization → Built railroads to link their vast territory into an independent market III. Made Some Good Progress → Process was carried out w/ brutalization of workers Japanese Industrialization I. Industrialization Outlier → For the most part, Asian states were declining in importance w/ the rise of industry and were getting pushed around by industrialized nations II. Meiji Restoration → engaged in state-sponsored defensive industrialization III. Became Most Powerful State in the Region Industrial Technology - 1st Industrialization: 1750-1850 2nd Industrialization: 1870-1914 How each phase powered: 1st Industrialization: coal and steam → James Watt created steam engine → powered locomotives & steamships 2nd Industrialization: Oil → oil turned to gasoline, internal combustion engine created → electricity powered incandescent light bulbs → lit factories & electric structures → electricity powered Samuel Morse’s telegraph Transportation Technologies 1st Industrialization (1750-1850) → steam engines: inc. commerce by linking distant parts into national economy → Railroads - facilitated more people moving from country to city → steam power for iron & steel ships made long distance maritime trade easier → Built much of structures w/ Iron → organic dyes 2nd Industrialization (1870-1914) → many more steam engines, suez canal, steel (Bessemer Process = stronger metal) → Synthetic dyes (cheaper than organic dyes) → Rubber (vulcanization) made rubber harder = more durable → Used in factories and tires and automobiles and mechanical uses Effects of Technology I. Development of Interior Regions → through internal railroads II. Increase of Trade and Migration → all multiplied global trade by a factor of 10 → More interconnected global economy Economic Developments and Innovations (Last unit → mercantilism → state-owned economies “The Wealth of Nations” (book by Adam Smith) - criticized mercantilist policies as coercive and beneficial to only a small part of society (elites) - called for free markets free from state intrusion (laissez-faire policies) → Benefit of the individual would benefit the whole society → he credited this to more even distribution of wealth, economic flourishing After 1815, several western governments abandoned some of their state regulations on trade, which resulted in increased trade and greater wealth thus proving Smith right - big economic development number 1 Second development: proliferation of transnational businesses → Transnational Business = a company that is established and controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in other countries & a growing # of them due to the interconnections of global economy Unilever Corporation = joint company owned by British & Dutch (laundry goods) → sold in w/ sourcing raw materials from colonies: West Africa & Belgian Congo New Practices I. Stock Markets - enabled people to purchase small shares of ownership in a company → if the company made money, so too did the owner of the stocks II. Limited Liability Corporations - A way of organizing a business to protect the financial investment of its owners → joint-stock companies 2.0 Industrial Capitalism - effects - Rise in standards of living → Further development of manufacturing technology → more efficient production of goods → goods become more affordable → more ppl have access to everyday goods to improve lives Reactions to Industrialization - Moved in shabby apartments = tenements → dangerous working conditions, paid less needed to survive Industrial Reforms I. Political Reform → Due to the expansion of suffrage, political parties began to represent the interests not only of the elite but also growing working class II. Social Reform → The working class began to organize themselves into social societies → provided insurance for sickness and an occasion for social events that helped bind them together as a community B/w 1810 & 1914, the majority of European govs. passed compulsory education laws to get boys and girls b/w the ages of 6–12 in school III. Educational Reform IV. Urban Reform → Due to the rapid pace of urbanization, populations of cities often grew faster than govs. could build infrastructure to support them → Funded sanitation infrastructure & passed laws to limit #hrs spent at work Labor Unions - collections of workers that were able to negotiate and bargain as a group in order to improve their lives → better working cond, better pay etc → German Social Democratic Party (unions turned into party) Karl Marx - Scientific Socialism Proletariat = working class Bourgeoisie = upper class 1. Proletariat becomes conscious of their suffering 2. Rises & overthrows the bourgeoisie 3. Takes over the means of production 4. Establishes a classless society. Reactionary Industrialization Successful Industrialization: Britain, Russia, US, Japan Reactionary Industrialization: Ottoman Empire, Qing China Qing China - became economically subservient to industrialized nations - Self-Strengthening Movement I. Realized industrialization was only way to maintain power → borrowed from the west while attempting to revitalize trad. Chinese culture II. Some steps were made toward modernizing China → full benefits of industrialization were hindered by Chinese conservatives → Resisted these developments b/c they threatened the power of the landlord class III. Resulted in a Half-Hearted Program of Modernization → proved to be insufficient when the 1895 Sino-Japanese war broke out → industrialized Japan Ottoman Empire bombarded by Industrialized States Implemented Tanzimat Reforms I Built Factories II. Laid Railroads III. Adopted western-style law codes IV. Absolutist sultan gave in to reformers → groups like young Ottomans → accepted a constitution and a parliamentary government V. Ottoman Conservatives Resisted Reforms → most notable was sultan himself → Reassumed his absolute power under the threat of war b/w Russia Industrialization’s social effects I. New social classes → working class: factory workers, middle class: lawyers, docs, teachers → industrialists: ran large corp. became more powerful than trad. Arististrocracy II. Role of Women - Working class women - worked wage-earning jobs just as men - Middle class women → Husbands had enough money, wife doesn’t work → Increasingly became defined as homemakers Industrialization’s social effects CONTD III. Challenges w/ Rapid Industrialization / Urbanization - Housing shortages resulted in shady complexes of tenements to be built - Minimal investment for sanitation - Poor public health rates in urban areas → Diseases like typhoid spread rapidly b/c of high-density living → 40 years to ~30 years (life expectancy) - Rate of urban crime rose quickly → Needed more jails to be built Unit 6 — 1750-1900 : main consequences of industrialization - new wave of imperial expansion Why Imperial States Expanded Motivations for Imperialism I. Nationalism - A sense of community among a people based on shared language, religion, and social customs - Often linked w/ a desire for territory II. Social Darwinism - Applied the laws of nature to society and politics - Added in the concept of scientific racism III. Civilizing Mission - A sense of duty imperial nations felt to develop all those peoples whom they were “civilizing.” White Man’s Burden - Imperial states intended this education and religious instruction to suppress indigenous culture and religion How Imperial States Expanded- Methods of Expansion I. Private Control → State control of colonies - Belgian Congo: King Leopold II grabbed for himself, once did he exploited for rubber and brutalized ppl II. Diplomacy - Making decisions by negotiation instead of warfare - Berlin Conference: Otto von Bismarck called the conference and ppl negotiated who would get what in Africa III. Warfare - In the beginning of the 19th century, the British ousted the Dutch from South Africa, but Dutch Afrikaners remained there. Over time, the British provoked the Dutch there which resulted in Boer Wars. As a result, British consolidated power in the colony while driving Afrikaners & indigenous South Africans into refugee camps whose brutal conditions led to the death of 10,000 black South Africans → Ex. of imperial states strengthening their control over existing colonies Methods of Expansion cont’d: IV. Settler Colonies - Colonies in which large numbers of people from the imperial authority go and settle → Ex: British takeover of Australia and New Zealand - British settled here & created neo-European society and introduced disease that killed Indigenous - Settler colonies also during Scramble for Africa → French Algeria V. Conquering Neighboring Territories → Three states that did this Conquering Neighbors I. US – Desire for westward expansion called Manifest Destiny - Indigenous lost fight & put into reservations. MD came to end in late 1800s - B/c of Spanish-American war, the US gained control of the Philippines and other Pacific territories ★ Illustrates larger trend in the period that: Older imperial powers, like the Spanish and the Portuguese, were declining in power and influence as three new states expanded II. Russia – After Crimean war, Russia wanted more - Ideology known as Pan-Slavism - A militant political doctrine that aimed to unite all Slavic people under Russian rule - Desire to achieve Great Power status on the world stage III. Japan - B/c of industrialization from Meiji Restoration, Japan had lots of miles of railroad and modernized its military ○ Expanded to Japan, Manchuria, China Economic Imperialism – The act of one state extending control over another state by economic means - By this time, China was not industrialized but had a lot of goods, esp. ones Britain wanted - Trade imbalance w/ Britain and China: Britain had huge demand for Chinese goods – porcelain, silk, tea → all goods going to Britain and China, piling up on all the silver - To solve, Britain cranked up opium production in India and sold to China - slowly silver started coming back to Britain → China started cracking down on opium imports, caused First Opium War, Brits won - China and Britain signed Treaty of Nanjing (in favor of brits, it opened more china ports) **This arrangement gave European states a distinct economic advantage in China since the treaty made clear that Chinese authorities could in no way stop the importation of opium → Caused the Second Opium War – more devastating → B/C of Taiping Rebellion, China was getting weaker (~1850s) → In Second Opium War, French & British forced China to sign another unequal treaty to open more trading ports to Western powers → Russia and Japan carved China into various Spheres of Influence in which China was dominated economically Economic Imperialism – Latin America Rise of the United Fruit Company: American company that took over several Latin American territories and organized their economies around the export of fruit (“bananas”) → Banana Republics ○ Ex: Costa Rica, UFC took over 800,000 acres UFC controls acreage for 99 years UFC in return builds railroads & shipping port to export goods All advantage goes to America and their control over this economic arrangement The Economic Imperialism – How global economics changed as a result of the larger development of imperialism Economic Imperialism – A method states used to extend control over various places Export Economies – An economy that is arranged around the export of commodity goods Diverse Economy includes: Farming, Mineral Extraction, Exporting & Manufacturing During this period imperial states took over India, South Africa, Congo and punted the economic diversity to the wind. They did this bc their whole motivation for going through the trouble of conquering and maintaining territory was to get access to raw materials or new markets for their industrial goods - Like last period when Spain re-organized entire economies like Santa Domingo around export of sugarcane Many imperial states narrowed the scope of their colonial economies to export only one or maybe a handful of goods or materials that the imperial state desired they needed raw materials to manufacture goods and huge plantations of crops to feed the steadily growing urban pop. Export Economies: I. Cotton British transformed economies of India and Egypt to focus on cotton exports II. Palm Oil Reorganized West African economies to focus on palm oil exports ○ Good for making household goods and lubricating industrial machines III. Cash Cropping High demand food products like coffee, wheat, rice Export Economies: Effects Profits that colonial states gained from the sale of these commodities were often used to purchase manufactured goods exported from imperial parents II. Economic Dependence Colonial economies were made to serve the interests of their imperial overlords, not the indigenous population Migration in the Industrial Age ★ People were able to migrate easily during this period b/c of the abundance of new and cheap transportation technologies like railroads, steam ships ★ Due to the access to that transportation, some migrants used the opportunity to return home from the places to which they migrated Causes of Migration I. Environmental - Significant demographic change caused migration to spike - European population was expanding due to increasing life spans - Natural disasters like famines presented challenges to existing patterns of settlement → Irish Potato Famine of 1840’s – millions migrated to places they could find work II. Relocating in Search of Work - In some cases, this occurred b/c migrants made a free choice to relocate - With slavery gone, indentured servitude became the semi-coerced labor system of many imperial states → Indians → Caribbean, Africa, SE Asia, Chinese → Malaysia ★ These contracts of indenture were often presented to workers in languages they could not read, if they could not read at all → no knowledge of stipulations of long work hrs, no days off → Convict labor ○ Britain & French established penal colonies in Australia & French Guiana Effects of Migration I. Gender Imbalance - Majority of migrants leaving to find work were men → left an abundance of women → Women stepped into many roles traditionally reserved for men II. Ethnic Enclaves - A geographic area w/ a high concentration of people of the same ethnicity and culture within a foreign culture → Chinatowns, Little Italys → Enclave migrants to SE Asia clustered together & became key players in colonial econ. → Indians who migrated to Mauritius and Natal were both Hindu and Muslim and practiced both religions together III. Nativism - A desire to protect the interests of native-born people against minority populations → U.S. Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act which cut off the flow of migrants → British Australia had the White Australia Policy Causes of Imperial Resistance I. Questioning of Political Authority Western education taught Enlightenment ideas like popular sovereignty and natural rights Some citizens of non-imperial states also objected to these imperial ventures ○ Joseph Conrad wrote his novel Heart of Darkness as criticism for King Leopold’s brutal policies in Congo ○ Economist J. A. Hobson wrote papers arguing that imperialism was a detrimental economic system in the long run as it depended on markets that were inherently unstable II. Growing Nationalism Among Colonial Peoples Forms of Imperial Resistance - Colonial Resistance I. Direct Resistance w/in Empires - War of the Golden Stool II. Creation of New States at the Periphery of Imperial States Cherokee Nation → Americans pushed them to Oklahoma territory → Arranged their own gov. → Somewhat retained their own culture Zulu Kingdom existed on the periphery of British South Africa No matter how long or how well they blended always fell to imperial states III. Religious Movements - Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement - British slowly started getting more Xhosa territory cattle died from diseases from Europe. Xhosa Prophet said if all cattle killed then new cattle would come and imperial invaders would be driven away Unit 7 – 1900–Present Crumbling empires, world wars, economic disasters, mass atrocities A Major Shift in State Power → Non Western countries fell apart during the period → These developments meant that both land-based and maritime empires would ultimately give way to new states by the century’s end. States Falling Apart I. Ottoman Empire – Ottoman Decline 1. Internal problems plagued Tanzimat Reforms - In response to those problems, two significant reform movements arose: i. Young Ottomans – called for liberal reforms to check the absolutist tendencies of the Ottoman sultan ii. Young Turks – overthrew the sultan in 1908 and began their own reform program 1. included the secularization of schools and law codes, the establishment of new civil liberties, and the imposition of Turkish as the official language of the empire 2. Minority Groups Experienced Their Own Nationalism → WWI proved to be the final blow that destroyed the Empire II. Russia – Russia’s Decline 1. Growing middle class began to resent the conservatism of Nicholas II - demanded more of a voice in gov. decisions 2. Brutal conditions of the working class led to various uprisings and insurrections - working class were responsible for industrial work ○ Russian Revolution of 1905 Shifting Power – common of Russia and Ottoman Empire - Leader forced to make accommodations to people’s demands - Introduction of a constitution - Legalization of labor unions and political parties - Leader largely ignored reforms and carried on as usual → WWI created conditions for major change - Both war & critical social difficulties of industrialization led to the Russian Revolution of 1917 led by Marxist Vladimir Lenin - Led the Bolsheviks → Death of Russian state, birth of Soviet Union - First communist state III. Qing Dynasty – collapse of the Qing 1. Taiping Rebellion - Internal factor - Successfully suppressed by the Qing military → cost lots of money & lives 2. Loss of Opium War and Sino-Japanese War - External factors - Resulted in the economic domination of China by outside powers → others carved China up into individual spheres of influence → At the end of the 19th century, Boxer Rebellion occurred - which was insurrection against Qing authorities whom the Boxers viewed as foreigners - British, French, Japanese sent troops to quell rebellion - they imposed further demands on an already weakened China → Sun Yat-sen, Western educated, led revolution which resulted in the abdication of the Qing Emperor and ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China (strongly led empire) → China emerged as a communist state under Mao Zedong IV. Mexican Revolution 1. Porfirio Díaz – Mexican dictator - Policies angered almost every social class that existed in Mexico - US & Britain approved of his strict free market capitalist policies 2. Francisco Madero – Díaz’s political rival - Socialist-like w/ land redistribution schemes - Elected president in 1910 3. Pancho Villa & Emiliano Zapata – decade of civil war - led massive peasant armies - Neither were successful in seizing any meaningful state power 4. Revolution complete by 1917 - Mexico emerged as a republic w/ a newly drafted constitution - unlike Bolsheviks in Russia → the const. enacted reforms that addressed problems Causes of World War I – Main Causes Militarism – A government’s belief that its interests are best protected by maintaining a strong military and using it aggressively - Germany ○ became more militaristic w/ unification and industrialization - France – made France nervous b/c it was small esp. after Franco-Prussian War - Great Britain had big naval empire ○ This had lots of debt maintaining power, but the money did not deter militarism Alliances – Triple Alliance: Germany + Italy + Austro-Hungarian Empire Triple Entente: Great Britain + France + Russia Imperialism – Imperial states tried to claim every last part of the earth When everything taken up, European powers experienced conflict over existing colonial holdings → largely caused creation of alliance system Nationalism – The promotion of one’s nation carried over from the 19th century, by which many nation-states competed to display the commonalities of their own ppl while defining other nation-states as enemies → Gavrillo Princep assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austro-Hungarian) Ferdinand , Serbian nationalist assassinated How World War I Was Fought Conducting World War I. World War I was a Total War - Required the mobilization of a country’s entire population in order to fight - Both military and civilian - Civilians are considered legitimate targets for military campaigns II. New Technologies = Exceedingly Deadly War - Due to the rapid pace of industrialization that preceded the war, militaries were equipped w/ industrial weapons - Machine guns, chemical gas, and tanks - Trench Warfare: Opposing armies dug miles of defensive trenches that were fortified w/ machine guns and barbed wire; when one side would attack, they would be bombarded w/ bullets and snared in barbed wire - Resulted in long war characterized by low territorial advances, enormous economic casualties - Resulted in colonial troops III. Widespread Use of Propaganda - The crazy and exaggerated images and films were meant to awaken and provoke the nationalism that had caused the war in the first place - US joined war on Britain and France’s side in 1917 → War development that helped them to win the war War ended in 1918 w/ signing of Treaty of Versailles by Germany & allies - Even though Woodrow Wilson tried to forge peace w/out victory - Britain and France made it so Treaty gave Germany consequences Global Economic Disaster – Gov. Interventions in Economics Gov. Economic Plans Country / Issue U.S. – 1929 stock market crash → economic disaster Economic Plans: New Deal I. Job opportunities w/ infrastructure projects II. Gov. sponsored retirement program III. Gov. medical insurance – for elderly & children Leader : Franklin D. Roosevelt Country / Issue Soviet Union – Post-war economy Economic Plans - New Economic Plan, Five Year Plans Leaders: Vladimir Lenin Joseph Stalin – collectivization of agriculture (small private farms → state-owned farm) - Ukraine – felt effects of collectivization → Once 5th-greatest producer of grain in USSR → 1932–33 harvest was only about half of what it had been in the years before → What small yields Ukrainian farmers did produce was exported to feed urban workers → Stalin made millions stay at home, starve to death; Holodomor Unresolved Tensions After WWI → On the whole, European powers and the Japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in some cases, states gained colonial territory as a result of the war - Creation of the Mandate System - Part of the Versailles Peace Settlement incl. creation of League of Nations - League of Nations: A group that exists to help states negotiate sol’n to disputes instead of turning to war Mandate System I. Former German colonies would now be mandates of the LON - In theory, this meant that the League would act as a caregiver helping the colonies along until they were economically and politically ready for self-gov. & independence II. Colonies designated as mandates ended up remaining colonies - Mandate system expanded colonial powers by means of negotiation and treaty, but other parts of the world, they experienced new conquest → Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 to expand & get access to natural resources → LON did not like it so Japan came out and continued its program of conquest and whole area became Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere - In Brit India, Indian National Congress was made in late 19th century → Esp after WWI where millions of Indians fought, they got mad - → Mohandas Ghandi led Indians in mass non-violence protests (which helped after WWII) Unsustainable Peace Treaty Continued Imperialisms Global Economic Crises Rise of Fascist States Causes of WWII UGCR I. Unsustainable Terms of Peace - Terms laid out in the Treaty of Versailles - Italy was denied much of the territorial gain they were promised - Required Germany to pay reparations for all the damage caused - Required demilitarization of Germany - Treaty contained the war guilt clause → Pinned entire blame for the war on Germany alone II. Continued Imperialist Aspirations - Adolf Hitler: colonial expanding III. Global Economic Crises - Most notably the Great Depression → Italy destabilizing emotionally/economically IV. Rise of Fascist and Totalitarian Regimes Fascist and Totalitarian States: - Soviet Union – Joseph Stalin - Italy – Benito Mussolini - Japan – Hirohito - Germany – Adolf Hitler Fascism – A far right political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and militaristic means to achieve its goals - All efforts used to get Italian Empire in Africa → used Mussolini - Mussolini used his oratorical skills to deliver rousing nationalistic speeches glorifying the Italian ppl & culture → Adolf Hitler went against Treaty - Canceled Germany’s reparations payments - Remilitarized Germany - Led many campaigns to annex territory throughout Europe → Hitler invaded Poland, Britain & France declared war How World War II Was Fought Conducting WWII I. World War II was a Total War - Bigger and more devastating than WWI Axis Powers – Germany, Italy, and Japan Allied Powers – Britain, France, Soviet Union. Later, US II. Methods States Used to Mobilize its People - Applies to both on the homefront & on the battlefield - Govs. used propaganda to promote nationalism and demonize their enemies - Govs. used different ideologies to mobilize for the war - With their blend of extreme nationalism and glorification of military conflict, fascist states were able to marshal their whole economies & populations quickly & efficiently - In Soviet Union, Stalin made use of communism to mobilize for the war - Stalin organized his economy to serve his own interests → rapid industrialization thru 5 year plans - war pushed farmers and workers to work more Methods democracies used – Great Britain ○ Winston Churchill – New PM didn’t want to continue appeasement policies of his predecessor: Chamberlain ○ Lacking control of a totalitarian state, Britain relied on cooperation of its people to successfully mobilize for war ○ In addition to massive propaganda, British Parliament made pledges to life citizens to expand the welfare state for wartime sacrifice → Nearly every state involved in the war repressed the freedoms of at least some part of her population - B/c of Pearl Harbor, thousands of Japanese forced to camps (US internment) - Jews thrown into ghettos b/c of Nuremberg Laws & concentration camps III. New Military Tactics and Tech. Led to more widespread casualties III. New Military Tactics & Tech led to More Wartime Casualties Tactics: Blitzkrieg, firebombing of WWII Firebombing - Small cluster of explosive devices meant to fall on urban areas and start fires Ex: Dresden – Germany, Tokyo – Japan - Most fatal bombing → hundreds of thousands killed and wounded, mostly in air Technology: Atomic Bomb US developed it, can level whole cities US dropped on Hiroshima & Nagasaki, hundreds of thousands died ○ Resulted in end of war in Pacific/WWII altogether Mass Atrocities (deadliest in world history) ** Rise of Extremist Groups led to attempted destruction of entire peoples I. Armenian Genocide - Ottomans thought Armenians might support invading enemies - Ottoman authorities began a program of mass extermination that included the outright slaughter of Armenians as well as forced relocation in which the people were malnourished & brutalized - Somewhere b/w 600,000 & 1.5 million Armenians killed II. Holocaust (Hitler named various ppls he argued system of social domination) - Plan called "Final Solution" using Industrial technology - Jews were mass murdered in concentration camp - 6 mil to death & 5 mil in other groups Unit 8 – Cold War & Decolonization Understanding Context: Cold war – a state of hostility that exists b/w two states, chiefly characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare The Cold War – An ideological struggle that took place over 40 yrs in the 20th century b/w the US & Soviet Union after World War II At the close of World War II, two global superpowers emerge: United States and Soviet Union - B/c of certain economic & tech. advantages U.S. Advantages 1. Economy - Mobilization for WWII created conditions for a complete economic turnaround - Industrial sector ramped up production to meet wartime needs - U.S. is money source in broken Europe, US becomes leader in money - Offered financial aid plans → Marshall Plan for paying off western European states, which led to economic revival - Used post-war prosperity to fund rebuilding of Western Euro nations - Balance of world power shifted toward the US 2. Technological Advancements - Developed atomic bomb (adv. & most devastating tech of the war) → Made it clear that U.S. was team king **The Soviet economy was heavily directed by the state since the 1920s and despite skepticism from more free market minded take, in the years leading up to World War II, their economy grew rapidly Soviet Advantages 1. Command Economy - Sourced natural resources from their enormous territory 2. Large Population - Citizens worked toward economic recovery Decolonization: After 1945 → Decolonization Context I. After WWII imperial powers denied countries right to self-rule - Re-claimed/expanded their colonial holdings thru mandate system II. In WWII, colonial troops fought for imperial powers! cause appeared to be no clear intention of the imperial countries granting independence to their colonies - Massive anti-imperial movements broke out across the world - Brit + France had no resources to resist these movements III. Developments lead to a worldwide process of decolonization - Broke apart colonial empires → created over 80 new states amidst major conflict The Cold War: Causes 1. Conflicting ideologies - Democratic capitalism (US) vs. Authoritarian Communism (Soviet) - Each is universalizing ideology 2. Mutual Mistrust: Soviet, US, Great Brit - Agreed that central and eastern European countries would hold free elections after the war was over - Stalin decided to keep those countries under Soviet control → to act as a buffer zone b/w Russia & Europe → Guided by conflicting ideologies & growing mistrust, the Cold War began and last for the next four decades Effects of the Global Nature of the Conflict: Nonaligned Movement The “world’s biggest war” was shaping global developments, the process of decolonization was happening at the exact same time → Creating dozens of states, US and SU raced to claim them Non-Aligned Movement – led by Ahmad Sukarno, hosted the first meeting of this movement in 1955 → Groups and individuals that refused to be controlled by the conflict b/w the two Cold War superpowers and worked for an alt. economic, political, and social order that presented a third way of being in the world that was not defined or controlled by the 2 countries Effects of the Cold War I. Military Alliances - B/c each power had devoted itself to the buildup of nuclear weapons or nuclear proliferation, a direct encounter b/w the two could be catastrophic → Armed conflict would result in mutual assured destruction NATO - US & several states in western Europe joined together in mutual military alliance Warsaw Pact:Soviet Union formed military alliance w/ their satellite states in Central Eur II. Proxy Wars (in Latin America, Korea, Africa) While these wars weren’t directly carried out by the U.S. and Soviet Union, they supported diff. sides in smaller conflicts, and in that way they could fight for global domination w/out actually fighting each other → Korean War - (Korea was Japanese colony during WWII) - North = communist, South = anti-communist - North invaded South - US & Soviet Union used war to fight one other → w/out actually fighting - Soviets union backed comm/communists - US backed anti-communists - Ended in 1953 basically how it had begun w/ Korea divided along the 38th parallel → Communists and anti-communists start fighting for power in some state and the two superpowers rush to support the rival sides so they can prove their dominance on the world stage → Contra War - Socialist Sandinistas backed by Cuba and the Soviet Union fought a war w/ the anti-communist Contras backed by the US → Angolan Civil War - Soviet Union backed the comm. groups trying for power while the US and its allies backed the anti-communist groups The Spread of Communism As it spread to other regions, it was diff. than Soviet communism Communist states: China & Soviet Union Similarities: Collectivization of agriculture State control of economy Soviet Union: Collectivization” = mass death mjjdjjdjdjjdjdjjdStalin’s five year plans → rapid industrialization, urban focus China: Collectivization = peaceful (not goal of entry) Mao’s “Great Leap Forward” → rapid industrialization, rural focus Mao Zedong - Wanted to show world that his brand of communism was good - Ended up creating great famine - Contrast to reports grain that could have saved millions of people’s lives Spread of Communism / Socialism I. Egypt - Socialist powers to redistribute land & resources under leadership model - Nationalization of Suez Canal - Canal would now become control of Egyptians and not colonial powers II. Vietnam - Two rival gov. were established - Communist north & anti-communist south - Communists began a program of land redistribution to combat a few wealthy landowners holding nearly all of Vietnam’s agricultural land III. Cuba - In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution in Cuba that established it as a communist state - Launched a program of land redistribution and raising wages - Transferring vast % of Cuba’s wealth from rich → poor - Nationalized much of the land that belonged to U.S. corporations who had exploited Cuba’s economy The End of the Cold War - The Cold War ended w/ the collapse of the SU in 1991. I. Advances in U.S. Military & Technological Development - In 1980, Ronald Reagan elected and led federal gov. to massively invest in military & technology - Most noteworthy → Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed Star Wars by critics - Aimed to create space-based missile defense systems - Soviet attempts to keep up w/ U.S. investment led them further into economic decline II. Failed Invasion of Afghanistan - Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan to prop up the communist regime against Afghan Muslim groups that sought to overthrow it - Soviet withdrew after losing war for 9 yrs → Further depleted Soviet economy III. Public Discontent & Economic Weakness in Communist Countries - In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came and his policies led to collapse - Gorbachev’s Reforms 1. Perestroika – A restructuring of the economy to address a tense economic web by reducing the level of central planning from the gov. 2. Glasnost – Means “openness” - Under this policy, culture dissent & criticism against the gov. and its policies that had been silenced by prev. leaders was now allowed 3. Ceased Military Intervention - Soviet Union would no longer use military intervention in order to prop up comm. govs. in its own sphere of influence a. Democratic reform movements erupted in one Eastern Euro country to another b. Berlin Wall forced down & reunification of Germanu c. Soviet Union would dissolve the union → leading to end of Cold War The Process of Decolonization - Decolonization I. Negotiated Independence - Indians formed the Indian National Congress in 1885 → Goal was to petition the Brit. gov. for more of a voice in Indian policy - Britain were broke enough from the war and had amassed enough pro-independence politicians in parliament that they officially recognized Indian independence in 1947 - All India Muslim League → resulted in partition in India II. Armed Struggle - For those colonies in which a large population of Euro settlers had made their homes, they tended to resist decolonization and that resistance could devolve to violence in the name of independence → Independence movement in Algeria - 1954: Arab & Berber Muslims formed the National Liberation Front - Staged a series of violent attacks against French troops & civilians in the name of independence - Continued until 1962 when Pres. Charles de Gaulle opened negotiations → Declared the end of the conflict & Algeria’s independence Common feature of decolonization was the inheritance of colonial boundaries! - Modern borders similar to colonial holdings - Inherited boundaries cause tension – Israel - Palestine part of Ottoman Empire - Zionist = Jewish nation-making ideology that appeared advocated for Jews to have a state of their own Partition of Palestine: 1. Spread of Zionism 2. Dismantling of the Ottoman Empire Post WWI a. Resulted in the transfer of Palestine to British authority under mandate b. Balfour Declaration supported Jews to settle there → Interwar period = fleeing persecution → Jewish migration to Palestine ↑ → United Nations split into two states → Israel declared ind. Palestine didn’t agree, so Arab-Israeli War New States: Economic & Migration In many states that were born through decolonization, govs often took a strong role in guiding economic life in order to promote the development of newborn nations Indira Gandhi’s State-Driven Economics I. Became first female PM of India in 1966 II. Implemented series of Five-Year Socialist Economic Plans - Aimed to allow the gov to assert more control over the economy instead of relying on foreign aid from powerful western nations III. Embraced technology of the Green Revolution - Addressed the problem of drought & famine - Green Revolution – A movement that involved biologically engineered seeds and fertilizers that led to increased agricultural yields & made India agriculturally self-sufficient Mass Migration: 1750–1900 & 1900–Pres. Similar: Migrants moved in search of work or on account of the economic difficulties they faced at home 1750-1900 → main criterion that determined where a migrant could go was indentured servitude 1900–Pres. → Migration occurred between formerly independent states and their former metropoles: South Asians → Britain, Algerians → France Effects of Migration 1. Migration to metropoles helped maintain cultural & economic ties b/w former colonies and their metropoles 2. Mass migration transformed majority white & culturally homogenous societies into multi-ethnic, shared societies Various Movements of Resistance Non Violent Resistance → “break unjust laws in acts of Civil disobedience” I. Mohandas Gandhi 1. Homespun Movement - protested Britain’s domination of India’s cotton industry - Salt March - Brits passed Salt Act → made illegal for Indians to collect and sell salt. → so they had to buy salt 2. Salt March - Ghandhi & a few followers walked several hundred miles to India’s west coast. - Thousands of Indians joined movement along the way. - In the end, 60-100k people joined the movement. III. Key player in India’s Independence from colonial rule. II. Martin Luther King Jr. & the Civil Rights Movement 1. Montgomery Bus Boycott - Black Americans boycotted the city’s segregated public transportation system. - Caused Montgomery city economic stress & then spread to other cities too. 2. Civil Rights Movement - Supreme court outlawed racial discrimination in schools in 1950s. - Congress passed anti-discrimination laws in the 1960s. III. Nelson Mandela (South African colored ind., Brit & Dutch colonizers established Apartheid) 1. Opposed Apartheid - South African racial segregation laws. 2. Prominent Member of African National Congress - Led black South Africans in acts of nonviolent resistance. (Incl. strikes & boycotts in order to effect political change.) - eventually went toward violent resistance 3. Treason Trial & Sharpeville Massacre - Caused Mandela & other anti-apartheid activists to abandon nonviolent approach & adopt violence after struggle for freedom. 4. Won Presidency in 1994. - Final nail in the coffin of South African apartheid Intensifying Violence I. Augusto Pinochet led a military Coup - Overthrew the democratically elected president Salvador Allende. - Marxist who had been implementing socialist policies. II. Pinochet Suppressed Opposition to his leadership. - Military conducted raids/executions, & torture against political enemies - Incl. members of leftist political parties, labor unions, & the Catholic Church Terrorism I. Shining Path II. Irish Republican Army III. al Qaeda - Founded & led by Saudi Arabian Billionaire Osama bin Laden - Militant Islamic Group - Had deep grievances abt the involvement of US in middle eastern states. - Iran, Israel, & Saudi Arabia - Sep. 11 attack in 2001 Unit 9 1900-Present Globalization after 1900 Globalization & Tech. Globalization – The increased economic, political, & social interconnections of the world (trade routes, imperialism, world wars, live. interconnections). - We are at a much faster rate b/c of tech. + internet. Communication Tech I. Radio - By 1930’s in the US: found in 12 million homes. - Television in 1940’s II. Cellular - people can call from anywhere in world III. Internet - In 1990s, affordable to avg. person - Computers + world wide web *By the turn of the millennium, the internet was responsible for connecting the world’s population thru email + connecting businesses w/ their customers in a pattern that accelerated to phenomena of global comm. and commerce. Transportation Tech. I. Air Travel - Due to massive economic growth, western countries experienced after. WW1 more ppl could afford to fly → shrinking geographical distance II. Shipping Containers - Standardized metal boxes that can be stacked uniformly for shipping non-bulk cargo like food, clothing, & raw materials Energy Tech I. Petroleum (Fossil fuels) → generate electricity. ★ Petroleum turned out to be a more efficient power source than coal → therefore became the main power source of industrial manufacturing, which has had the effect of inc. production in order to meet the demand for consumer goods across the world. II. Nuclear Power - Atomic Bombs in WWI - Cleaner than petroleum Women’s Suffrage Medical Tech I. Medical Birth Control - The birth control pill was developed, gave women more reliable control over their fertility - Caused women (especially in developed regions) to have fewer children - Has led to a demographic crisis in some places involving declining fertility rates → In the developing world populations are growing rapidly → esp. in sub-Saharan Africa, where access to healthcare is not so nearly prevalent II. Vaccines & Antibiotics Agricultural Tech I. Commercial Agriculture - Subsistence farming - Farmers' main goal is to grow small-scale crops mainly for their own consumption - Commercial farming - Farmers' main goal is to inc. production of agricultural products and maximize profits II. Green Revolution - A development in which scientists applied the methods of genetic modification to food & created new strains of high-yielding grain crops. Produced 3-4x normal yield Globalization & Disease I. Global Pandemics - Influenza Pandemic 1918 = end of WWI o Claimed ~ 50 million lives over the course of 2 yrs - Had massive impact on demographics around the world - Disproportionately affected working age ppl II. Diseases Associated w/ Poverty - Populations of wealthy nations w/ well developed healthcare systems have far greater access to the various medical interventions that address disease. - Malaria - Spread by infected mosquitoes Typically occurs in large #’s throughout warmer, tropical regions III. Diseases Associated w/ Aging Populations - Heart Disease & Alzheimer’s - New medical advances have been developed to treat these diseases Globalization & the Environment ★ Globalization has created the context for the further development of industrialization and right along w/ it, the rapid urbanization of the world. Environmental Effects I. Deforestation - Large scale clearing of trees in a geographical area Deforestation Effects I. Urbanization - More of the world’s people are living in cities → Geographical footprints of those cities are growing larger II. Farmland Creation - Increasing # of animal species is going extinct - Greater degree of pollution due to erosion & contaminated water runoff III. Decline in Air Quality IV. Desertification - Occurs when farmland becomes infertile due to over-cultivation - Encouraged by commercial farming practices → Becomes useless for further agricultural productivity V. Increased Consumption of Freshwater Supply VI. Climate Change - Warming of the planet due to the release of greenhouse gases Debate about Climate Change: What caused climate change? Humans or not? Who’s responsible for fixing it? Developed Nations - Industrialized - Most responsible for climate change - Wealthiest nations in the world - agree that the release of gg’s should be limited Developing Nations - Represent former colonies of industrialized nations - Only way to become economically viable and competitive on a global scale is to industrialize - Many will further contribute to climate change Globalized Economies I. Promotion of Free Market Economies and economic liberalization - By end of WWII and after Great Depression, a common trend among places was for governments to take a more active role in directing the economic decisions of their states - By 1980’s this trend was rejected on several levels in favor of the free market → economic liberalization Free Market Policies - Lowering trade barriers like tariffs - Deregulation of industry - Transfer of public sector industries to private parties Ex. Ronald Reagan of US & Margaret Thatcher of UK - Reduced taxes on the wealthy - Deregulated business - Decreased spending on social welfare programs - Worked to undermine the power of labor unions - Gave power to business leaders - Caused gap b/w wealthy and poor to inc. II. Restructuring (Geographical Distribution) of Global Economic Activity ★ One of the many features of that industrialization is that the factories and all the laborers that made those factories work were located within that country itself. → Knowledge Workers: Workers in wealthier, more developed countries whose main capital for work was not their hands but rather their minds → Ex: Finland - operated as agrarian economy post WWII → Toward end of 20th century, gov invested heavily in technology sector → led to tremendous economic growth as a significant player in cell phone tech. & software development ★ In the second half of the 20th century, manufacturing was now increasingly located in developing countries where international businesses could save money by paying lower wages to foreign workers than was legal in their own countries. (Vietnam / Bangladesh / Honduras / Mexico) III. Rise of Global Economic Institutions → World Trade Organization - Created to regulate trade on a global scale - Assists in the negotiation of trade deals - Acts as a moderator for various trade disputes - Creates initiatives to assist developing countries along the scale of development IV. Conditions for the Multiplication of Regional Trade Agreements → European Union: constitutes its own economic bloc - 27 countries are members V. Proliferation of Multinational Corporations → Businesses that are incorporated in one country but manufacture and sell goods in other countries globally → Nestle: headquartered in Switzerland - low wage workers in Africa, but sells on world market Globalized Culture Technology promoted cultural connectivity → Globalization created globalized culture I. Music - Reggae, originated in Jamaica, b/c of Bob Marley → spread - K-Pop originated in South Korea → everywhere now II. Entertainment - Hollywood / Bollywood III. Spectator Sport - Olympics / World Cup → a platform for expression of nationalism IV. Consumer Culture → b/c the US had an oversized influence on the global culture & economy after World War II, consumer culture ended up becoming a global phenomenon Global Brands I. Coca-Cola II. Toyota V. Online Retailers - Alibaba – China / Amazon & eBay – US. Whipping containers! Globalized culture altered / threatened values of local cultures. - In 2020 → China didn’t like social media b/c created unrest - A riot broke out pinning ethnic Hans against weaker Uighurs → Uighurs – persecuted Muslim minority → Shut FB & Twitter & Create Weibo Globalized Institutions → United Nations I. Successor to League of Nations - Created after WWII in order to shore up the weaknesses of the LON - Aimed to accomplish two purposes: prevent war & facilitate cooperation among nations II. General Assembly - Includes representatives from all member nations (193 possible) - Responsible for discussing and making policies for all member nations: Created UNICEF III. Security Council - Responsible for keeping peace in a globalized world - Made up of permanent members (US, China, France, Russia, UK) and 10 rotating reps among member nations - Has authority to send military peacekeepers → Helped stabilize violent situations → Impose economic sanctions on states that are creating violent conflict Economic Institutions I. World Bank - Created to provide financial assistance for the reconstruction of Europe post WWII - Shifted its focus to providing loans and technical assistance to developing countries - Specializes in projects aimed at: → reducing poverty, promoting economic development → achieving sustainable growth II. International Monetary Fund - Created to facilitate monetary cooperation among all the member states of the world → promote free trade & keep global currency values stable & free flowing Globalization Encouraged Reform: Global Reform Movements I. Rights-Based Discourse - Challenged old assumptions abt race, class, gender & religion - 1948, UN produced Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Incl. basic rights to life, liberty, & security of persons - Condemned racism & imperialism - Championed social & economic equality for all citizens → esp. the rights of women, children, & refugees II. Feminist / Negritude Movements - Worked to secure women’s rights to vote across the world → Came through UN - Worked for the sake of elimin

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