Psychological Disorders & Abnormal Behavior PDF

Psychological Disorder or Abnormal categories that are either present or Behavior - A psychological dysfunction absent. (malfunctioning) within an individual Textbook Example: associated with distress or impairment in fu...

Psychological Disorder or Abnormal categories that are either present or Behavior - A psychological dysfunction absent. (malfunctioning) within an individual Textbook Example: associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not If you are out on a date, it should be fun. But typical or culturally expected. if you experience severe fear all evening and just want to go home; severe fear happens Three Criteria defining a Psychological every date, your emotions are not Disorder: functioning properly. 1. Psychological Dysfunction Personal Distress or Impairment 2. Distress or impairment Extremely upset. 3. Atypical response Suffering and Distress are very much Situation: Judy, the girl who fainted at the part of life. However, for some sight of blood. disorders, suffering and distress (sorrow, suffering, or pain) are Increasing episodes (occurence of a absent. usually recurrent pathological abnormal condition) of fainting. Consider the person who feels extremely elated and may act impulsively as part of the After showing the detailed movie of manic episode. frog dissection, she felt lightheaded and bothered. Some people enjoy the manic state; that they are reluctant to begin She began to avoid situations in treatment or stay long in treatment. which she might see blood or injury. (Gory pictures, raw meat, band-aids) Judy was clearly impaired by her phobia, but many people with similar, less severe Fainting 5 to 10 times a week. reactions are not impaired. This difference Judy was suffering from blood- illustrates the important point that most injection-injury phobia. psychological disorders are simply extreme expressions of otherwise normal emotions, Phobia - A psychological disorder behaviors, and cognitive processes. characterized by marked and persistent fear of an object and situation. Atypical or Not Culturally Expected There is no criterion has yet been developed The greater deviation, the more that fully defines abnormality. abnormal it is. Psychological Dsyfunction - refers to a Many people are far from the breakdown in cognitive, emotional, and average in their behavior; we might behavioral functioning. call them talented or eccentric (strange). It is often considered as continuum or a dimension, rather than to be Textbook Example: The most widely accepted definition used in DSM-5 describes, It’s not normal to plan to have blood spurt behavioral, psychological, or from your clothes, but when Lady Gaga did biological dysfunctions that are this while performing, it only enhanced her unexpected in their cultural context celebrity. and associated with present distress The more productive you are in the and impairment in functioning or eyes of the society, the more increased risk of suffering, death, eccentricities society will tolerate. pain, or impairment. Therefore, deviating from the The diagnostic criteria from DSM IV average doesn’t work well as a - TR as well as the emerging criteria definition of abnormal behavior. for DSM-5 found throughout this Another view is that your behavior is book are all prototypes. This means abnormal if you are violating social norms. that the patient may have only some features or symptoms of the disorder It is useful in considering important (a minimum number) and still meet cultural differences in psychological the criteria for the disorder because disorders. his or her set of symptoms is close to Textbook Example: the prototype. To enter a trance state and believe you are One of the differences between DSM possessed reflects a psychological disorder IV and DSM 5 is the addition of the in most Western cultures but not in many dimensional estimates of the other societies, where behavior is accepted severity of specific disorders in and expected. DSM 5. A social standard of normal is The Science of Psychopathology misused. Psychopathology - It is the scientific study Textbook Example: of psychological disorders. The practice of committing political Within this field are trained dissidents (objector) to mental institutions professionals, including clinical and because they protest the policies of their counseling psychologists, government, common in Iraq and now occur psychiatrists, psychiatric social in Iran. workers, psychiatric nurses, marriage and family therapists, and Harmful Dysfunction - A related concept mental health counselors. that is also useful to determine whether the behavior is out of the individual’s control Clinical psychologists and (something the person doesn’t want to do) counseling psychologists received PH.D, Ed.D, Psy.D) and follow a An Accepted Definition graduate level study lasting 5 years in It is difficult to define normal and which prepares them to conduct abnormal. research into the causes and  treatment of psychological disorders A. Community Mental Health Worker and to diagnose, assess, and treat Crisis Intervention these disorders. They also usually concentrate on more severe B. Drug Abuse or Alcohol Counselor psychological disorders. Management and Evaluation of Counseling psychologists tend to Addicts study and treat adjustment and vocational issues (related to career or C. Pastoral Counselor employment) encountered by Ministerial background and training relatively healthy individual. in Psychology and chaplain Psychiatrists earn MD degree and internship with mental health facility. specialize in Psychiatry during The Scientist Practitioner residency that lasts 3-4 years. They also investigate the nature and Scientist - Practitioners are called causes of psychological disorder, for mental health professionals who often from a biological point of view; take a scientific approach to their make diagnosis and offer clinical work. treatments. Scientific Practitioners function in three Psychiatric social workers earns a ways: MD in social work, as they develop 1. They may keep up with the latest expertise in collecting information scientific developments and use the relevant to the social and family current diagnostic and treatment situations of the individual with procedures. (Consumer) psychological disorder. They also treat disorders concentrating on 2. They evaluate their own assessments family problems. or treatment procedures to see if it works. (Evaluator) Psychiatric Nurses earn a master's or PH.D and specialize in the care and 3. They might conduct research to treatment of patients with produce new information about psychological disorders. disorders or their treatment. (Creator) Marriage and Family Therapists and Mental Health Counselors Fads would not be used by scientist typically spend 1-2 years earning practitioners if they were no sound master's are employed to provide scientific study to show that it works. clinical services by hospitals or Such data flow of research that attempts three clinics. basic things: Paraprofessionals are people who 1. To describe psychological disorders. are trained to assist professional mental health workers. 2. To determine their causes.  3. To treat them. to recover within a few months only to suffer recurrence at a later time. Clinical Description Presenting Problem- It is where the patient discuss a specific problem or set of problems. Still other disorders follow a time- limited It is a traditional shorthand way of course, meaning the disorder will improve indicating why the person came to the clinic. without treatment in a relatively short period. Clinical Description - It represents the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, Closely related differences in course and feelings that make up a specific of disorders are differences in onset. disorder. Some disorders have an acute onset, The word Clinical refers both to the meaning that they begin suddenly; types of problems and disorders that others develop gradually over you would find in a clinic or hospital; extended period which called activities connected with assessment as insidious onset. and treatment. One important part of clinical description is One important function of clinical to determine the typical course of a description is to specify what makes disorder. the disorder different from normal Textbook Example: behavior. Statistical data may also be relevant. If someone is suffering from a mild disorder with acute onset that we know is time- “How many in the population as a limited, we might advise the individual not to whole have the disorder?” This bother with expensive treatment because the question figure is called Prevalence. problem will be over soon enough, like a “How many new cases occur during a common cold. However, if the disorder is given period?” This question figure is likely to last a long time (become chronic) called Incidence. the individual might want to seek treatment. In addition to having different symptoms, Prognosis - The anticipated course of age onset, and possibly a different sex ratio disorder. and prevalence, most disorders follow “The prognosis is good” means the somewhat a course. patient will probably recover. Textbook Example: “The prognosis is guarded” means the Schizophrenia follow a chronic course, probable outcome doesn't look meaning that they tend to last a long time, good. sometimes a lifetime. Like mood disorders, it follows an episodic The patient's age may be an important part course, meaning that the individual is likely of clinical description.  A specific psychological disorder Humans have always supposed agents occurring in childhood may present outside our bodies and environment differently from the same disorder in influence our behavior, thinking, and adulthood. emotions. These agents might be divinities, demons, spirits, or other phenomena such as Development Psychology - It is the study of magnetic fields, moon, or the stars that are changes in behavior over time. considered as the driving force behind Development Psychopathology - It is the supernatural model. study of changes in abnormal behaviors. Life Span Developmental Mind has been called the soul while the Psychopathology - It is the study of psyche is considered separate from the abnormal behaviors across the entire age body. span. Three traditions of thought about abnormal Causations, Treatment, and Etiology behavior: Outcomes 1. Biological model. 2. Psychological model. Etiology - It is the study of origins. It includes biological, psychological, and 3. Supernatural model. social dimensions. Treatment is often important to the study of The Supernatural Tradition psychological disorder. If a new drug or psychosocial treatment is successful, it may give hints about the nature of the disorder Deviant behaviors have been and its causes. considered as reflection of the battle between good and evil. Textbook Example: During the Great Persian Empire, all If a drug with a specific known effect within physical and mental disorders were the nervous system alleviates a certain considered as work of the devil. psychological disorder, we know that something in that part of nervous system might either be causing the disorder or helping maintaining it. Demons and Witches (14th to 15th century.) Religious and lay authorities began to Historical Conceptions of Abnormal believe more the popular Behavior superstitions and to support the power of demons and witches. They  started to turned to magic and rather than demons. (mostly from sorcery to solve their problems. people who were tortured) The bizarre behaviors of people afflicted in psychological disorders Treatments for Possession was seen as work of devil and witches. It is followed that individual In Western countries, HIV is most possessed by evil spirits are prevalent among individuals with responsible for the misfortunes homosexual orientation. experienced in the community. It is believed that it was a divine Treatments include exorcism that punishment for what they considered were performed to get rid of the as immoral behavior. spirits. Other approaches included shaving the pattern of cross in the Exorcism has the virtue of being hair and securing the sufferers to a relatively painless. It worked wall near the front of a church. through faith healing. However, if the exorcism failed, people were subjected to confinement, beatings, other forms of torture to drive away Stress and Melancholy (17th century.) the spirits. Insanity is a natural phenomena that The most disturbed, oddly behaving is caused by mental or emotional individual would suddenly come to stress and it is curable. their senses and experience relief Mental depression and Anxiety from their symptoms, if only were recognized as illnesses. temporarily. (snake pits and dunkings Although feeling lethargic and in ice-cold water) despair were identified by the church as acedia or sloth. (apathy) Common treatments for it are to rest, sleep, and Mass Hysteria a happy and healthy environment. Other treatments include baths, ointments, and various potions. In the 14th century, people with In Europe, whole groups of people insanity along with those with were simultaneously run out in the physical deformities or disabilities streets, dance, shout, rave, and were often moved from house to jump around in a pattern. house in medieval villages as It is known by several names such as neighbors took turns caring them. Saint Vitus's Dance, and Tarantism. Nicholas Oresme suggested that the One reasonable guess was reaction to disease of melancholy (depression) insect bites. One is Mass Hysteria. was the source of bizarre behaviors Modern Mass Hysteria Hippocrates and Gallen Mass hysteria may simply Hippocrates is considered as the demonstrate the phenomenon of Father of Modern Western emotion contagion in which the Medicine. His associates left a body experience of an emotion seems to of work called Hippocratic Corpus. spread to those around us. They believed that psychological Textbook Example: disorder might also be caused by brain pathology or head trauma and If someone nearby is frightened or sad, could be influenced by heredity. chances are that for the moment, you will also feel fear or sadness. He considered the brain as the seat of wisdom, consciousness, Therefore, if one person identifies a intelligence, and emotion. cause of the problem, others will probably assume that their own He also recognized the importance of reactions have the same source. In psychological and popular language, this shared interpersonal contributions to response is sometimes referred to as psychopathology. mob psychology. In Hippocratic- Gallenic approach, Humoral theory of disorders states that a normal body functioning was Moon and Stars related to four bodily fluids or Paracelsus, suggested that the humors. movements of the moon and stars had profound effects on people's psychological functioning. He stated Four bodily fluids: that the gravitational effects of the 1. Blood came from the heart. moon on bodily fluids might be the possible cause of mental disorders. 2. Black bile from the spleen. The theory is inspired from the word 3. Phlegm from the brain. lunatic which means moon. 4. Choler or Yellow from the liver. The belief is most noticeable today in followers of Astrology who hold that their behavior and their major event in their lives can be predicted based Physicians believed that disease on the position of the planets. resulted from too much or too little of one of th humors. The Biological Tradition Textbook Example: Too much black bile can cause (melancholer) depression.  The humoral theory is the first Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert example of associating Burton recommended eating tobacco psychological disorder with a and half boiled cabbage to vomit. chemical imbalance approach. In China, unexplained mental Four humors still applied to disorders were caused by blockages personality traits. of wind or the presence of cold, dark wind (yin) as opposed to warm, life The four humors were related to the Greeks’ sustaining wind (yang). conception of the four basic qualities: Treatment involved acupunctures. 1. Heat. In Somatic Symptom Disorder, the 2. Dryness. physical symptoms appear to be the 3. Moisture. result of a medical problem for which no physical cause can be found such 4. Cold. as paralysis or blindness. Textbook Example: Because these disorders occur Sanguine (red like blood) describes someone primarily in women, they presumed in ruddy (face is in reddish color) that the empty uterus wandered to complexion; cheerful and optimistic. various parts of the body in search of conception. Melancholic means depressive. A phlegmatic personality indicates apathy and sluggishness; can be calm under stress. 19th Century A choleric person is not tempered. The Biological tradition was reinvigorated because of two factors: The discovery of nature and cause of syphilis and strong support from Excesses of one or more humors were John P. Grey treated by regulating the Advanced Syphilis is a sexually environment to increase or transmitted disease caused by decrease heat, dryness, moisture, bacterial microorganism entering and cold. the brain, including delusion of Two treatments were developed. One persecution or delusion of is bleeding or bloodletting, a grandeur. carefully measured amount of blood The symptoms are similar to was removed from the body; often Psychosis - psychological disorder with leeches. Second is the inducing characterized in part by beliefs that vomiting, a well known treatment on are not based in reality (delusions), depression. perceptions that are not based in reality (hallucinations) the  researchers recognized that a In the 1930’s, physical subgroup of psychotic patients interventions, electric shock, and became paralyzed and dying. brain surgery were often used. In 1825, it was designated a disease Textbook Example: general paresis, because it had Insulin was occasionally given to stimulate consistent symptoms and a appetite in psychotic patients who were not consistent course of death. eating but also seemed to calmed them Louis Pasteur's germ theory of down. disease in1870 facilitated the Manfred Sakel, (A Vienesse identification of the specific physician) began using higher bacteria microorganism that caused dosage until patients convulsed and syphilis. became temporarily comatose. Penicillin cures syphilis but with Some actually recovered their mental Malaria cure, madness and health but the procedure known as associated behavioral and cognitive Insulin Shock was abandones symptoms were traced directly to a because it was too dangerous, often curable infection. resulting in prolonged coma or death. John P. Grey Benjamin Frank discovered in the 1750's that mild and modest electric Grey's position is that the cause of shock to the head produced a brief insanity is always physical. convulsion and memory loss but Therefore, the mentally ill patient otherwise did little harm. should be treated as physically ill. In 1920’s a Hungarian psychiatrist Under Grey's leadership, conditions Joseph von Meduna observed that in hospitals became humane and schizophrenia was rarely found in livable institutions. individuals with epilepsy. Some of At the end of19th century, they were his followers concluded that induce alarmed with the increasing size and brain seizure might cure impersonality of mental hospitals schizophrenia. until the controversial policy of Followed by the suggestions of Ugo deinstitualization was made that had Cerletti and Lucio Bini in 1938 to negative consequences. the possible benefits of applying electric shock directly to the brain. The Development of Biological During the1950’s, the first effective Treatments drug for severe psychotic were developed.  Opium had been used as sedatives (use to calm or relieve) along Consequences of the Biological Tradition countless herbs and folk remedies. Emil Kraepelin is one of the Rauwolfa Serpentine, discovered founding Fathers of Modern another class of drugs called Psychiatry. neuroleptic (major tranquilizers) for the first time hallucinatory and He was the first to distinguish among delusional thought process. These psychological disorders, seeing that drugs also controlled agitation they may have different age of onset (anxiety) and aggresiveness. and time course with somewhat different clusters of presenting Other discoveries included symptoms and different cause. benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers) which seemed to reduce anxiety. By the1970’s benzodiazepines were known with The Psychological Tradition brand names Valium and Lithium Plato thought that two causes of that were the most widely prescribed maladaptive behavior were the drugs in the world. social and cultural influences in Alexander and Selesnick point out one's life and the learning that took that “General pattern of drug therapy place in the environment. for mental illness has been one of Psychosocial treatment is an initial enthusiasm followed by approach to the causation of disappointment.” psychopathology, which focus not Textbook Example: only on psychological factors, but also on social and cultural one as Bromides, a class of sedating drugs, were well. used at the end of the19th century and beginning of the 20th century to treat anxiety Aristotle emphasized the influence and psychological disorders. By the 1920’s, of social environment and early they were considered effective. When their learning on later psychopathology. side effects including undesirable physical They also advocated humane and symptoms became widely known, bromides responsible care for individuals with largely disappeared from the scene. psychological disturbances. Neuroleptics have been used less attention because it focused on many side effects such as tremors and Moral Therapy shaking. However, the positive The term Moral referred more to effects of these drugs on some emotional or psychological factors patients’ symptoms, it was rather than to a code of conduct. revitalized.  Its basic tenet includes treating During Dix's heroic efforts, there was institutionalized patients as an increased number of mental normally as possible in a setting that patients that eventually led for the encouraged and reinforced normal hospitals being inadequately staffed. social interactions. Relationship were carefully nurtured. Psychoanalytic Theory Moral therapy is a system originated with the well-known French Franz Anton Mesmer suggested his psychiatrist Philippine Pinel and his patients that their problem close associate Jean Baptiste Pussin (hypnotized) was caused by who was the superintendent of the undetectable fluid in all living Parisian hospital in La Bicetre. organism called animal magnetism. William Tuke is often considered as Mesmer was considered an oddity the founder of US Psychiatry who and maybe a charlatan, strongly introduced moral therapy in his opposed by the medical early work at Pennsylvania hospital. establishment. Asylums had appeared in 16th Mesmer is widely regarded as the century but they were more like Father of Hypnosis. prisons (chains to restrain patients) than hospitals. Jean Martin Charcot demonstrated some techniques of mesmerism were effective with a number of psychological disorders. Asylum Reform and the Decline of Moral Therapy Freud teamed up with Josef Breuer who had experimented with a After the mid-9th century, humane somewhat different hypnotic treatment declined because of a procedure. convergence of factors. First, it was widely recognized that moral Breuer asked his patients to describe therapy worked best when the their problems, conflicts, fears, as number of patients in an institution detailed as they can. was 200 or fewer allowing for greal deal of individual attention. Two notable observations during the phenomena: Second, the great crusader Dorothea Dix campaigned endlessly for reform 1. Patients often became extremely in the treatment of insanity. Her work emotional and felt relieved and became known as the Mental improved after the hypnotic state. Hygiene Movement. She made sure 2. They gained understanding of the that everyone who needed care relationship between their emotional received it, including the homeless. problems and their psychological disorder.  With this observation (impossible to constructed on the development and recall some details) , Breur and Freud structure of personalities. discovered the unconscious mind Brief Outline of Psychoanalytic Theory: and its apparent influence on production of psychological 1. The structure of the mind and the disorders. distinct functions of personality that sometimes clash with one another. Their second discovery is that it's therapeutic to recall and relive 2. The defense mechanisms in which emotional trauma that has been the mind defends itself from these made unconscious and to release the clashes. accompanying tension. This release of emotional material is known as 3. The stages of early psychosexual catharsis. development that provide grist for the mill of our inner conflicts. Insight is the fuller understanding of the relationship between the current emotions and earlier events. The Structure of the Mind Freud and Breuer's theories were Three Major parts of the mind: based on case observation. One of is is the Hysterical Symptoms of 1. Id. Anna. 2. Ego. Details about Anna: 3. Superego. She was a bright, attractive, young ID is the source of our strong sexual and woman who was perfectly healthy aggresive feelings or energies. until she reached the age of 21. It is basically the animal within us. If Five months after her father became unchecked, it would make us all ill, she noticed vision blurred and had rapists or killers. difficulty moving her right arm and both legs. She began to experience The energy or drive of id is the difficulty speaking and behavior libido. became unpredictable. Death Instinct or Thanatos are two basic drives toward life and fulfillment on one hand, and death and destruction on the other. Breur dealt with one symptom at a time through hypnosis and The id operates according to the subsequent “talking through”. pleasure principle. The goal of pleasure which is particularly Freud expanded the observation and prominent in childhood often called it as Psychoanalytic Theory, conflicts with social rules and the most comprehensive theory yet regulations.  Id has its own characteristic way of disorders will develop. The conflicts processing information; referred to that are all within in mind are referred as the primary process. This type of to as intrapsychic conflicts. thinking is emotional, irrational, ID and Superego are almost entirely illogical filled with fantasies, and unconscious and the only structure preoccupied with sex, aggression, that we are fully aware of is the ego. selfishness, and evil. Defense Mechanisms The anxiety is the signal to alert the Ego ensures that we act realistically. ego to marshall defense mechanism It operates according to the reality that keeps primitive emotions principle. associated with conflicts in check so that ego can continue to coordinate. Its characteristic way of processing information is called a secondary Phobic and Obsessive symptoms are process in which logic and reason the common self-defeating defensive exists to oppose the illogical and reactions that reflect an inadequate irrational primary process of the id. attempt to deal with an internally dangerous situation. Textbook Example: Superego or what we call a conscience that represents our moral principles instiled by A dog phobia may be connected to an our parents and our culture. infantile fear of castration. That is, a man's internal conflict involves a fear of being It is the voice within us that nags at us attacked and castrated, a fear that is when we know we're doing consciously expressed as a fear of being something wrong. attacked and bitten by a dog, even if the dog Its purpose is to counteract the is harmless. potentially dangerous aggressive and Examples of Defense Mechanism: sexual drives of the id. 1. Denial - Refuses to acknowledge. 2. Displacement - Transfers a feeling about, or a response to an object. The role of Ego is to mediate conflict between the id and superego. 3. Projection - Falsely attributes own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or The Ego is referred to as the thoughts to another individual or executive manager of our minds. object. If mediated successfully, we can go 4. Rationalization - Conceals the true on to higher intellectual and creative motivations for actions, thoughts, pursuits. If not, the id and superego feelings, through elaborate becomes too strong, conflict will overtake us and psychological  reassuring, or self serving but 2. Phallic - (5-6 years old) which is incorrect explanation. characterized by early genital self- stimulation. 5. Reaction Formation - Substitutes behavior, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of Oedipus Rex in which Oedipus is fated to unacceptable ones. kill his father and to marry his mother. Freud 6. Repression - Blocks disturbing asserted that all young boys relive this wishes, thoughts, or experiences from fantasy when genital self-stimulation is conscious awareness. accompanied by images of sexual interaction with their mothers. 7. Sublimation - Directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses The strong feelings of envy and into socially acceptable behavior. anger toward their fathers whom they identify and wish to take. Castration Anxiety is a phenomenon Psychosexual Stages of Development: in which the boys are scared that their 1. Oral - (2 years from birth) is father might remove their penis. The characterized by a central focus on battle of the lustful impulses on one the need of food. In the art of sucking, hand and castration anxiety on the necessary for feeding the lips, tongue, other creates internal conflict called and mouth become the focus of Oedipus Complex. libidinal drives and therefore, the It will resolve when the child decides principal source of pleasure. to resolve his ambivalent If not received the appropriate relationship with his parents and gratification for this stage, fixation reconcile the anger and love he has would happen where an individual's for his father. If this happens, he may personality would reflect the stage channel his libidinal impulses into throughout adult life. heterosexual relationships while retaining harmless affection for his Textbook Example: mother. Fixation in the oral stage might result in The counterpart in girls is called Electra excessive thumb sucking and emphasis on Complex. Freud viewed the young girl to oral simulation eating, chewing pencils, or replace her mother and possess her father. biting fingernails. Central to this possession is the girl's Adult personality characteristics desire for a penis; hence the term theoretically associated with oral penis envy. fixation include dependency and passivity or in reaction to these According to Freud, the conflict is tendencies, rebelliousness and successfully resolved when females cynicism. develop heterosexual relationships and look forward to having a baby. In Freud's view, all non-psychotic in this sense refers to those important psychological disorders resulted from people and the process of underlying conscious conflicts, the anxiety incorporation is called introjection. resulted from those conflicts, and the Introjected objects can become an implementation of ego defense mechanisms. integrated part of the ego or may Freud called such disorders neuroses or assume conflicting roles in neurotic disorders, referring to disorders of determining the identity or self. the nervous system. Textbook Example: Your parents may have conflicting views on Later Developments in Psychoanalytic relationships or careers, which in turn may Thought be different from your own point of view. Anna Freud concentrated on the way in which the defensive reaction of the ego determines the behavior. She According to Object Relations was the first proponent of the Theory, you tend to see the world modern field of ego psychology. Her through the eyes of the person book entitled Ego and the incorporated into your self. Mechanisms of Defense is still influential. Carl Jung introduced the concept collective unconscious which a She believed that individuals slowly wisdom accumulated by society and accumulate adaptational culture that is stored deep in capacities, skill in reality testing and individual memories and passed defenses. Abnormal behavior down from generation to develops when the ego is deficient in generation. He also suggested that regulating such functions as delaying spiritual and religious drives are as and controlling impulses or in much part of human nature as are marshaling appropriate normal sexual drives. This emphasis and the defenses to strong internal conflicts. idea of collective unconscious Heinz Kohut focused on a theory of continue to draw attention of the formation of self-concept and the mystics. He also emphasized the crucial attribute of the self that importance of introversion (to be shy allow an individual to progress and withdrawn) and extroversion toward health, and conversely to (friendly and outgoing). develop neurosis. Adler focused on feelings of Object Relations Theory is the study inferiority and striving for of how children incorporate the superiority he created for the term images, the memories, sometimes the inferiority complex. Both Adler and values of a person who was Jung believed that there is a strong important to them and to whom they drive toward self-actualization were emotionally attached. Object (realizing one’s full potential). They  both believed that by removing The relationship between the barriers to both internal and psychoanalyst and the patient is external growth would improve and important. The therapist may flourish. discover the nature of the patient’s intrapsychic conflicts because of the Other took psychoanalytical theorizing in phenomenon called transference. different directions emphasizing development over lifespan, and the Countertransference is where influence of culture and society on therapists project some of their own personality. personal issues and feelings, usually positive onto the patient. Karen Horney and Erich Fromm are associated with these ideas but Classical psychoanalysis requires Erik Erikson’s theory of therapy four to five times a week for developmental across lifespan in 2-5 years to analyze unconscious which he described in some detail conflicts, resolve them, and the crises and conflicts that restructure the personality to put ego accompany eight specific stages. back in charge. Many psychotherapists employ a loosely related set of approaches Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy referred to psychodynamic Psychoanalytic therapy are designed psychotherapy. to reveal the nature of unconscious mental processes and conflicts through catharsis and insights. Seven tactics that characterize psychodynamic psychotherapy: He developed Free Association in which patients are instructed to say 1. A focus on affect and the expression whatever comes to mind without the of patients’ emotions. usually required censoring. Its 2. An exploration of patients’ attemps to purpose is to reveal emotionally avoid topics that hinder progress in charged material that may be therapy. repressed because it’s too painful or threatening to bring into 3. The identification of patterns in consciousness. patients’ actions, thoughts, feelings, experiences, and relationships. The couch became the symbol of psychotherapy. 4. An emphasis on past experiences. Dream Analysis interprets the 5. A focus on patients’ interpersonal content of dreams. The goal of this experiences. therapy is to help gain insight into the nature of conflicts. 6. An emphasis on the therapeutic relationship.  7. An exploratiom of patients’ wishes, They believed that we all strive to dreams, fantasies. reach superior levels of intellectual and moral development. Self - Actualizing is the underlying Two additional features of assumption that all of us could reach psychodynamic therapy: our highest potential. 1. It is significantly briefer than Abraham Maslow was most classical psychoanalysis. systematic in describing the structure 2. It de-emphasize the goal of of personality. He postulated personality reconstruction, focusing hierarchy of needs beginning with instead on relieving the suffering the most basic physical needs for associated with psychological food and sex, and ranging upward to disorders. our needs for self-actualization, love, and esteem. Social needs such as Comments friendship falls somwhere between. The major criticism of psychoanalysis Maslow hypothesized that we cannot is that basically unscientific, relying progress up until we have satisfied on reports by the patients of events the needs of the lower level. that happened years ago. (The events Carl Rogers, the most influential may have been filtered). humanist. He originated client There have been no careful centered therapy later known as measurement of any of these person centered therapy. In this psychological phenomena and no approach, the goal is to give the obvious ways to prove and disprove individual a chance to develop during the basic hypotheses of the course of therapy. psychoanalysis. Humanist theorists have great faith The relationship of the therapist and in the ability of human relations to the patient is called therapeutic foster this growth. Unconditional alliance that is considered as the positive regard is the complete and important area of study across most almost unqualified acceptance of therapeutic strategies. most client’s feelings and actions, critical to the humanistic approach. Empathy is the sympathetic Humanistic Theory understanding of the individual’s Freud portrayed life as a battleground particular view in the world. where we continually in danger of being overwhelmed by dark forces. In Jung and Adler, they emphasized the The Behavioral Model positive, optimistic side of human Also known as cognitive behavioral nature. model or sociall learning model.  stimulus;termed conditioned response (CR). Pavlov and Classical Conditioning He also learned about the conditioned In Classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus is that: stimulus is paired with a response until it elicits that response Textbook Example: Textbook Example: Without the food for a long enough period would eventually eliminate the conditioned During chemotherapy, cancer patients response to the food. In other words, the dog experienced severe nausea and vomitting but learned that the metronome no longer mesnt whenever they see medical personnel who that a meal might be on the way. This process administered chemotherapy, they is called extinction. experienced severe nausea and occasionally vomitting, even on days when their treatment is not delivered. Watson and the Rise of Behaviorism The strength of the response to similar objects or people is usually a function of how similar these objects or people are. This phenomenon is called John B. Watson is considered the stimulus generalization because the founder of behaviorism. response generalizes to similar stimuli. He decided to base psychology on introspection was to head in wrong The classical conditioning process direction; psychology could be made begins with a stimulus that would scientific as physiology. elicit a response in almost anyone and requires no learning, no conditions Most of Watson’s time was spent mjst be present for the response to developing behavioral occur. psychology as a radical empirical science. Textbook Example: Textbook Case: The food or chemotherapy is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the 11 month old boy named Albert was presented natural unlearned response to this stimulus with a white rat. Albert was not afraid of the is salivation or nausea is called the animal but whenever he reach the rat, the unconditioned response (UCR). experimenter would made a loud noise behind him. After five trials, Albert first displayed fear to the rat, as well as to the white furry object. Any person or object associated with the unconditioned stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same response, but now the response became conditioned/conditional The Beginnings of Behavior Therapy  Joseph Wolpe developed variety of or weakened (likely to occur less behavioral procedures for treating his frequently) depending on the patients whom suffered from consequences of that behavior. phobias. Textbook Example: His best known technique is called If a 5 year old boy starts shouting at the top Systematic Desensitization in which of his lungs in a restaurant, much to the individuals gradually introduced to annoyance of the people around him, it is the objects or situations they feared unlikely that his behavior was automatically so that their fear could extinguish, and elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. Also, they could test reality and see that he will be less likely to do it in the future if his nothing bad happened in the presence parents scold him, take him out to the car of phobic object or scene. and sit for a bit, or consistently reinforce He added another element by having more appropriate behavior. If his parents his patients carefully and think his behavior is cute and laugh, chances systematically inagine the phobic are he will do it again. scene, and the response he chose was relaxation because it was convenient. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning because behavior B.F Skinner and Operant Conditioning operates the environment and changes in some way. In Operant conditioning, the behavior changes as a function of Textbook Example: what follows the behavior. The boy’s behavior affects his parent’s Best known works are Walden Two ( behavior and probably the behavior of other depicts a fictional society run) and customers. Beyond Freedom and Dignity (statement of problems facing our culture and suggests solution based on his own view of a science of Skinner preferred the term behavior). reinforcement to “reward” because it connotes the effect on the behavior. Skinner was strongly influenced by Watson’s conviction that a science of He pointed out that all of our human behavior must be based on behavior is governed to some degree observable events and relationships by reinforcement, which can be among those events. arranged in an endless variety of ways, in schedules of Edward L. Thorndike is best known reinforcement. for Law of Effect which states that behavior is either strengthened He also believed that punishment as (likely to be repeated more frequently) a consequence is relatively  ineffective in the long run and that the In 1990’s, two developments came primary way to develop new together as never before to shed light behavior is to positively reinforce on the nature of psychopathology. desired behavior. He used a procedure called Shaping, a process of reinforcing successive 1. The increasing sophistication of approximations to a final behavior scientific tools and methodology. or set of behaviors. 2. The realization that no one Textbook Example: influence- biological, behavioral, If you want a pigeon to play Ping-Pong, first cognitive, emotional, or social- ever you provide it with a pellet of food everytime occurs in isolation. it moves its head slightly toward a Ping- In other words, our behavior, both Pong ball tossed in its direction. Gradually, normal and abnormal, is the product you require the pigeon to move its head ever of continual interaction of closer to the Ping-Pong ball until it touches psychological, biological, and social it. Finally, receiving the food pellet is influences. contingent on the pigeon hitting the ball back with its head. The Present: The Scientific Method and an Integrative Approach Each tradition has failed in important ways. First, scientific methods were not often applied to the theories and treatments within a tradition, mostly because methods that would have produced the evidence to confirm or disprove the theories and treatments had not been developed. (Because of this, many people accepted various fads and superstitions that ultimately proved to be untrue or useless.) Second, health professionals tend to look at psychological disorder narrowly from their own point of view alone.