ATTP.1 PDF - An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

An Integrative Approach to similar they were. But Judy’s reaction Psychopathology reached such an extreme that even hearing someone “Cut it out!” evoked queasiness. Multi-Dimensional Integrative Approac...

An Integrative Approach to similar they were. But Judy’s reaction Psychopathology reached such an extreme that even hearing someone “Cut it out!” evoked queasiness. Multi-Dimensional Integrative Approach Biological Influences Biological dimensions include causal factors from the field of genetics and neuroscience. Judy experienced vasovagal syncope (heart rate and blood suddenly dropped) which is a Psychological dimensions include causal common cause of fainting. factors from behavioral and cognitive processes including learned helplessness, Syncope means sinking feeling or swoon social learning, prepared learning, and caused by low pressure in the head. even unconscious processes. A possible cause of the vasovagal syncope is Emotional dimensions influence social and an overreaction of a mechanism called the interpersonal influences. sinoaortic baroflex arc which compensates for sudden increase in blood pressure by Developmental influences figure in any lowering it. The tendency to discussion of causes of psychological overcompensate seems to be inherited. disorders. Many people with severe syncope reaction No influence operates in isolation. Each do not develop phobias by coping up dimension is strongly influenced by the through tensing their muscles to quickly other dimensions. raise blood pressure and prevent fainting. One – Dimensional vs. Multi-dimensional To cause blood injection phobia, a complex To say that psychopathology is caused by a interaction must occur between behavioral physical abnormality or by conditioning is and biological factors. to accept linear or one-dimensional model Emotional Influences which attempts to trace the origin of behavior to a single cause; however, most Biology influences behavior but behavior, scientists and clinicians believe abnormal thoughts, and feelings can also influence behavior results from multiple influences. biology. Systemic derives from the word “system” Emotions can affect physiological response that implies that any particular influence such blood pressure, heart rate, and contributing to psychopathology cannot be respiration. It also changed the way she considered out of context. Therefore, any thought about the situation. one component of the system inevitably Emotions play a substantial role in the affects the other components. development of many disorders. What Caused Judy’s Phobia? Social Influences Behavioral Influences Social and Cultural factors make direct Her reaction, an unconditioned response contributions to biology and behavior. became associated with situations similar to the scenes in the movie depending on how Rejection, particularly by authority figures Like Huntington’s Disease, PKU is caused by can make psychological disorders worse. defect in a single gene. PKU is inherited Then again, being supportive is not always when both parents are carrier. To correct helpful because the strong effects of social this disorder, they simply restrict the amount attention may actually increase the frequency of phenylalanine until the child develops to a and intensity of the reaction. normal diet. Developmental Influences The Nature of Genes Passage of time affects us all. As time passes, Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes when we change and so as our environment, arranged in 23 pairs. One pair from the father it causes us to react differently at different and one from the mother. ages. The first 22 pairs provide for the We may enter a developmental critical development of the body and brain, and the period when we are more or less reactive to last pair is called the sex chromosomes a given situation. determines an individual’s sex. Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology In females, the 23rd pair are called X chromosome. In males, the mother Genes are long molecules of DNA at various contributes the X chromosome, while the locations in chromosomes within the cell father contributes Y chromosome. nucleus. The shape of helix is like a spiral staircase. Physical characteristics are strongly On the X chromosome, there are influenced by genetic endowment. For approximately 160 million pairs. example, height and weight are affected by nutritional, social, and cultural factors. A dominant gene is one of the pairs of genes that strongly influences a particular trait, and Huntington’s Disease is a degenerative brain we only need one of it. disease that appears early to middle age, usually the early 40. It was traced to a genetic A recessive gene must be paired with defect that causes deterioration in a specific another gene to determine a trait. area of the brain, the basal ganglia. Polygenic is influenced by many genes, each It causes broad changes in cognitive, and contributing a tiny effect in which may be particularly in motor behavior including influenced by environment. involuntary shaking or jerkiness Human genome is the individual’s complete throughout the body. set of genes – consisting of 20,000 genes. Another example of genetic influence is the Quantitative genetics sums up all the tiny phenylketonuria (PKU) which can result in effects across many genetics without telling intellectual disability previously called us which genes are responsible for which mental retardation. This disorder is present effect. at birth and it is caused by inability to the body to metabolize phenylalanine, a chemical compound found in many foods. Molecular genetics focuses on the actual Judy inherited a tendency to faint at the structure of genes using advanced sight of blood. This tendency is technologies such as DNA micro-arrays. vulnerability. New Developments in the Study of Genes - The stress of seeing dissection and Behavior activated her genetic tendency to faint. Adverse life events such as chaotic childhood can overwhelm the influence of The smaller the vulnerability, the greater genes. the stress required to produce a disorder. Conversely, with greater vulnerability, The role of Genes: less life stress is required. 1. Specific genes or small groups Chemical Transporter is a substance of genes may ultimately be found to be that affects the transmission of serotonin associated with psychological in the brain. disorders. 2. Genetic contributions cannot be *Observation in Caspi’s study* studied in the absence of interaction Individuals with at least two copies of with events in the environment that long alleles tend to cope better with stress triggers genetic vulnerability or turn than individuals with short alleles. on specific genes. The Gene– Environmental Correlation The Interaction of Genes and the Model or Reciprocal Gene Environment Environment Model Eric Kandel suggested that the very Genetic Endowment may increase the genetic structure of cells may change as probability for an individual to a result of learning if genes that were experience stressful events. inactive or dormant interact with the environment that enables the gene to be People who continue to rush to physical active. safety without regard for safety might have the genetically determined The Diathesis Stress Model tendency to create factors that trigger It states that individuals inherit genetic vulnerability which is the blood tendencies to express certain traits of injection phobia. behavior which may be activated under Epigenetics and the Nongenomic the condition of stress. “Inheritance” of Behavior Diathesis means a condition that makes Reports emphasized the extent of genetic someone susceptible to developing a influence on our personalities, disorder. temperaments, and their contributions to Textbook Example: the development of psychological disorders. Robert Sapolsky concluded that genetic It processes all information received influences are often a lot less powerful from our sense organs and reacts as than is commonly believed. The necessary. environment even working subtly can The primary function of spinal cord is to still mold and hold its own in the facilitate the sending of messages to and biological interactions that shape who we from the brain which is the major are. component of the nervous system. Cross Fostering The brain uses an average of 140 billion Epigenetic means on or around. It states nerve cells called neurons that control that stress, nutrition, and other factors every thought and action. It transmits all affect this epigenome which is information. immediately passed down to the next Dendrite has numerous receptors that generation, and maybe for several receive messages in the form of chemical generations. impulses. Our genetic endowment does contribute Axon transmits these impulses to other to our behavior, emotions, and our neurons. cognitive processes and constrains the influence of environmental factors such The synaptic cleft is the space between as upbringing. the axon and the neuron. Neuroscience and its Contributions to Neurotransmitters are the biochemicals Psychopathology that are released from the axon of one neuron and transmit the impulse to the The focus of neuroscience is to know dendrite receptors of another neuron. how the nervous system, especially the brain, works in understanding behavior, Glia is another type of cell that was emotions, and cognitive processes. considered as passive cells that merely served to connect and insulate neurons. The human nervous system consists of: It also play an active role in neural 1. Brain activity in which different type of glia 2. Spinal Cord cells serve to modulate 3. Peripheral Nervous System – neurotransmitter activity. consisting of the somatic nervous Major neurotransmitter: system (controls voluntary muscles and convey sensory information to the 1. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) nervous system) and the autonomic 2. Serotonin nervous system. (controls 3. Dopamine involuntary muscles) 4. Gamma- Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) 5. Glutamate The Central Nervous System Reduce level of GABA is associated with excessive anxiety. Increase in Dopamine activity to (almond) all named for their schizophrenia. approximate shape. - This system helps to regulate our Correlation between depression, high emotional experiences and level of norepinephrine, and low levels expressions and to some extent, the of serotonin. ability to learn and control our The Structure of the Brain impulses. It is also involved with the basic drives of sex, aggression, Two parts of the brain: thirst, and hunger. 1. Brain Stem – lower and more ancient - At the base of the forebrain includes part. Found in most animals. Its the basal ganglia. It includes the function includes breathing, caudate (tailed) nucleus. Damage to sleeping, and moving around. this structure makes us change our 2. Forebrain – more advanced. posture or twitch or shake as they - The lowest part of the brain stem is are believed that it controls muscle the hindbrain that contains the activity. medulla, pons, and cerebellum. It - Cerebral Cortex is the largest part of regulates breathing, pumping action the forebrain. It consists of 80% of the heart, and digestion. neurons. This allows us to look to the - The cerebellum controls motor future and plan to reason and to coordination. Abnormalities in create. cerebellum may be associated with Two Hemisphere of the Cerebral Cortex: autism. - Midbrain that coordinates movement 1. Left Hemisphere – Chiefly with sensory input and contains part responsible for verbal and cognitive of the reticular activating system in processes. which contributes to process of 2. Right Hemisphere – In charge of arousal and tension, whether we’re perceiving the world around us and awake or sleep. creating images. - At the top of the brain stem is the Each hemisphere consists of lobes: thalamus and hypothalamus which oversee regulating behavior and 1. Temporal – recognizing various emotions. Some anatomists consider sights and sounds and with long the thalamus and hypothalamus to be memory storage. part of the forebrain. 2. Parietal – recognizing various - At the base of the forebrain is the sensations of touch and monitoring limbic system. Limbic means border body positioning. and located around the edge of the 3. Occipital – Integrating and making center of the brain. This also includes sense of various visual impacts. the structures of the hippocampus 4. Frontal – The most interesting point (sea horse) cingulate gyrus (girdle), of view of psychopathology. The front septum (partition), and amygdala (anterior) of the frontal lobe is called prefrontal cortex. This is the area  responsible for higher cognitive The thyroid gland produce thyroxine functions such as thinking, which facilitates energy metabolism and reasoning, planning for the future, growth. and even long-term memory. This The pituitary is a master gland that area of the brain synthesizes all produces a variety of regulatory information received from the other hormones. parts of the brain and decides how to respond. The gonadal glands produce sex hormones such as estrogen and The three lobes located towards the back testosterone. (posterior) work together to process sight, touch, hearing, and other signals from our Endocrine system is closely related to senses. immune system. It is also implicated in a variety of disorders. (Stress- related The Peripheral Nervous System physical disorders.) Two Major Components: Endocrine regulation may play a role in 1. Somatic Nervous System - It controls depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and the muscles. Damage in this area other disorders. make it difficult for us to engage in Textbook Example: any voluntary muscle, such as talking. The depressed patients may respond 2. Autonomic Nervous System – It better to an anti-depressant medication if includes the sympathetic nervous it is administered in combination with a system and parasympathetic nervous thyroid hormone or for some older system. depressed men, coadministration of - The primary duty of autonomic testosterone may enhance antidepressant nervous system is to regulate the effects. This interdisciplinary area of cardiovascular system (heart and research is called blood vessels) and the endocrine psychoneuroendocrinology. system (pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, and gonadal glands) to perform The sympathetic nervous system is various functions like digestion and primarily responsible for mobilizing the regulating body temperature. body during times of stress or danger by rapidly activating the organs and glands Each endocrine gland products produces under its control. its own chemical messenger called hormone and releases it directly into the When sympathetic division goes on alert, bloodstream. three things happen: The adrenal glands produce 1. Heart beats faster, increasing the epinephrine (also called adrenaline) in flow of blood in muscles. response to stress as salt regulating 2. Respiration increases to allow more hormones. oxygen to get into the blood and brain. 3. Adrenal glands are stimulated. Abnormal activity of serotonin causes depression. Textbook Example: Abnormalities in dopamine is implicated If a woman lifted a heavy object to free a to schizophrenia. trapped child, it explains that her sympathetic nervous system was working Agonists that effectively increases the overtime. neurotransmitter activity by mimicking its effect. Sympathetic nervous system mediates a substantial part of our emergency or Antagonists that decrease or blocks a alarm reaction. neurotransmitter or substances called inverse agonists that produce the effects One function of parasympathetic opposite to those produced by nervous system is to balance the neurotransmitter. sympathetic system. We could not operate in a state of hyperarousal and Most drugs could be classified either preparedness forever, so the agonistic or antagonistic. parasympathetic nervous system takes After a neurotransmitter is released, it is over after the activeness of sympathetic quickly drawn back from the synaptic system and normalize the arousal and cleft into the same neuron. This process facilitating the storage energy by helping is called reuptake. the digestive process. Two types of neurotransmitters: Hypothalamus connects to the adjacent pituitary gland which is the master of 1. Monomamines coordinator of the endocrine system. 2. Amino Acids The cortical part of the adrenal gland They are called classic because they produces a stress hormone cortisol. synthesized in the nerve. This is called as the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical axis or HPA Amino acids include GABA and axis. Glutamate. Neutrotransmitters Monoamines includes norepinephrine (noradrenaline), serotonin, and There are thousands of brain circuits. dopamine. The estimate is there are more than 100 different neurotransmitters, each with Glutamate is an excitatory multiple receptors are functioning in the neurotransmitter that turns on many nervous system. different neurons while the GABA is the inhibitory neurotransmitter. Reports that certain psychological disorders are caused by biochemical - The job of GABA is to inhibit imbalances, deficiencies, or excesses in transmission of information and certain neurotransmitter systems. action potential. - Because these two neurotransmitters Textbook Example: work together to balance  functioning in the brain, they are overeating, excessive sexual referred to as chemical brothers. behavior, and has the tendency to - Another characteristic of them is that overreact to situations. they are fast acting to keep up with - In addition, low serotonin activity the environmental influences that makes us more vulnerable. requires action or restrain. - Higher level of serotonin may - Overactivity of glutamate could lead interact with GABA to counteract to burn out sections. glutamate. - MSG or Monosodium Glutamate - The following drugs affects serotonin referred to the increase amount of are the tricyclic antidepressants or glutamate causing headaches, ringing imipramine (Tofranil) and SSRIs of the ears and other physical (Selective Serotonin Reuptake symptoms. Inhibitors) including Fluoxetine (Prozac) that affects serotonin more GABA directly than other drugs. - GABA has the best-known effect to - SSRIs are used to treat psychological reduce anxiety. disorders particularly anxiety, mood, - Benzodiazepines makes easier for and eating disorders. GABA molecules to attach - The herbal medication of St. John’s themselves to the receptors. Wort also affects serotonin levels too. - The higher level of benzodiazepines, Norepinephrine the more GABA attach themselves to the receptors making us calmer. - Norepinephrine like epinephrine is - It reduces overall arousal and referred to as catecholamine, a part temper our emotional response. It in endocrine system. also reduces anger, hostility, Two groups: aggression. - Positive emotional states such as 1. Alpha- Adrenergic eager anticipation and pleasure 2. Beta- Adrenergic Receptors makes a GABA generalized inhibiting neurotransmitter much - Beta blockers block the beta to glutamate that has a generalized receptors to reduce the surge of excitatory function. norepinephrine and keeps the heart rate and blood pressure down. Serotonin - One major circuit controls the bodily - Its technical name is 5- function such as respiration. hydrotryptamine. Another circuit influences the - The serotonin regulates our behavior, emergency reactions or alarm moods, and thought processes. responses that occur when the - Extremely low of serotonin are norepinephrine bears relationship to associated with less inhibition and state of panic. with impulsivity, instability, - aggression, suicide, impulsive Dopamine Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – suffer from intrusive frightening - It is termed catecholamine because thought. of the similarity of its chemical structure to the epinephrine and Although the brain size and structure are norepinephrine. the same to other people, people with - It plays a significant role in OCD have increased activity in the depression and attention deficit frontal lobe called orbital cortex. hyperactivity disorder. Increased activity is also present in the - It is best described as a switch that cingulate gyrus and to a lesser extent, in turns on various brain circuits the caudate nucleus. These areas associated with certain types of concentrate on Serotonin. behavior. - Dopamine merges and crosses with Eating behavior, sexual behavior, and Serotonin to influence behaviors. aggression are under better control with adequate levels of serotonin. Textbook Example: If we experience damage or interruption Dopamine is associated with exploratory, in this brain circuit, we find ourselves outgoing, and pleasure-seeking acting on every thought or impulse that behaviors while Serotonin is associated enters our head. with inhibition and constraint. Thus, they balance each other. Textbook Example: L-Dopa affects the dopamine circuit A man who successfully undergo a brain which is a dopamine agonistic tumor surgery. After a good recovery, his (increases dopamine). business failed and separated from his family. Turned out, he had a classic Dopamine switches on the locomotor obsessive-compulsive disorder because movement that regulates ability to move his brain was damaged by removal of the and once turned on, it will be influenced tumor was a small area of his orbital by serotonin. frontal cortex. Implications of Psychopathology Psychosocial Influences on Brain Psychopathology focuses more on the Structure and Function general role of brain function in the Neurosurgery (Psychosurgery) is development of personality with the goal recommended to correct severe of considering how different types of psychopathology particularly the OCD. biologically driven personalities might be more vulnerable to developing The anterior Cingulate Cortex is psychological disorders. responsible for control of the pain response. Textbook Example: The CBT facilitated changes in thinking patterns in the cortex that in turn affected the emotional brain. It is sometimes called the top-down change They also discovered that naturally because it originates in the cortex and occurring neurotransmitters have works its way down into the lower brain. different effects depending on the previous psychosocial experiences of an Interaction of Psychosocial Factors organism. and Neurotransmitter Systems The serotonin is reversible once the loser Some indicate that psychosocial factors crayfish become dominant. directly affect levels of neurotransmitters. Early stressful experiences deficits serotonin. Textbook Example: Textbook Example: Thomas Insel: One of the leading investigators in the monkey study. Bullying small mice produced changes in mesolimbic dopamine system of smaller Rhesus monkeys wherein the first group mice. Because of this change, the small had free access to toys and treat, but the mice chose to be a recluse. second group got these toys and treat when the first group did. The Mesolimbic system is ordinarily associated with reward and even They were injected after addiction. However, it produced new benzodiazepines. The monkeys later learning and positive things in brain, displayed signs of anxiety and panic, but specifically brain development the monkeys who had a sense of control neurotrophic factor (BDNF) that were behaved differently. They did not seem turned on by a psychological experience. anxious. They became angry and aggressive, even attacking other Bullying produced BDNF changed the monkeys. usual functioning of the mesolimbic dopamine system from facilitating Scientists observed that psychosocial reinforcement and even addiction to factors routinely change the activity facilitating avoidance and isolation. levels of many of our neurotransmitter systems. Glucocorticoid receptors located on dopaminergic neurons function in Textbook Example: facilitating and maintaining social Yeh, Fricke, and Edwards: Experimenter aversion. of the Crayfish. Psychosocial Effects on the The two male crayfish is battling for Development of Brain Structure and dominance. When one won the battle, the Function scientist found out that serotonin made a The structure of neurons including the specific set of neurons to fire. The one number of receptions on a cell can be who lost made the same neurons that are changed by learning and experience less likely to fire. during development. Behavioral and Cognitive Science Cognitive Science is concerned with encounter conditions which they have no how we acquire and process information, control over it. and how we store and ultimately retrieve Seligman theorized that same it. phenomenon may happen with people Cognitive processes are unconscious. facing an uncontrollable stress in their lives. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes People become depressed if they “decide Robert Rescorla stated that simply or think” they can do little about the pairing two events closely in time is not stress in their lives, even if there is important in this type of learning. something that they can do. People Rather, a variety of judgement and make an attribution that they have no cognitive processes combine to control, and they become depressed. determine the final outcome of this learning. He also termed learning optimism that highlights that people who faced with Textbook Example: considerable stress and difficulty must Meat powder and metronome are paired. display optimistic, and upbeat attitude, so they can function better If one animal never saw the meat powder psychologically and physically. except for the 50 trials following the metronome sound, whereas the meat Positive Psychology explores the factors powder was brought to a second animal that account for positive attitudes and many times between 50 times and paired happiness. with metronome, two animals learn Social Learning different things. Albert Bandura observed that people The first animal learned that the sound of can learn just by observing what metronome meant meat powder came happens next to someone else in a given next while the second animal learned that situation. This observation is called meat sometimes came after the sound modeling observational learning. and sometimes without the sound. Bandura expanded his observation into a The two different conditions produce two network of ideas in which behavior, different outcomes which is a cognitive factors, and environmental commonsense notion. influences converged to produce the Complex cognitive processes as well as complexity of behavior that confronts emotional processes are involved when us. The presence of social context is conditioning occurs. important in learning. It states that it depends on our interactions with other Learned Helplessness people around us. Martin Seligman and Steven Maier Bandura’s work produces the most described the phenomenon of learning accurate scientific predictions of helplessness in which the animals behavior. Concepts of probability learning, Lawrence Weiskrantz describes a information processing, and attention phenomenon called blind sight or have become important in unconscious vision. psychopathology. Reference: Prepared Learning Young man who had his visual cortex Genetic Endowment influences what we removed then later, became blind. learn. The phenomenon of this case is In other words, we learn fears and associated with real brain damage. phobias selectively. It became like the perspective of Prepared Learning is about learning individuals who got hypnotized that certain types of objects and situations stated normal individuals provided with over the course of evolution because this hypnotic suggestions that they are blind knowledge contributes to the survival of and can be able to function properly but the species. have no awareness or memory of their visual abilities. This condition illustrates Textbook Example: dissociation. We learn to fear snakes or spiders than Implicit memory happens when rock and flowers. someone clearly acts based on things that One possibility is that when those of our have happened in the past but can’t ancestors who avoided snakes and remember the events. Furthermore, it is spiders, then survived in greater number selective only for certain events. A good pass down their genes to us. memory for events is called explicit memory. Sex difference may exist in this learning type because females are particularly Black Box refers to unobservable sensitive to this learning than males that feelings and cognition inferred from an could demonstrate it as early as 11 individual’s self-report. Several methods months of age; greater incident for for studying the unobservable methods snakes and spiders for adult women. have been made and one of them is Stroop Paradigm. - The roles of women based on theory is foragers and gatherers while In Stroop Paradigm, participants are men’s primary role is risk taking shown a variety of words, each printed hunters. in a different color. Color naming is delayed when the meaning of the word One Trial Learning attracts the participant’s attention, despite Selective associations are also facilitated efforts to concentrate on the color, that is by our genes. the meaning of the word interferes with the participant’s ability to process color Cognitive Science and the Unconscious information. By this method, psychologists can able to The defensive adjustment can also uncover particular patterns of emotional produce hot and cold spells that often significance even if the person is not occur during extreme fear. aware of it. In the short term, voiding the body of all The greater the duration, intensity, waste material and eliminating coherence of neural representation in the digestive processes further to prepare the brain, the more likely the person will be organism for concentrated action and aware of the information. activity, so there is often pressured to urinate, defecate, and vomit. Emotions Emotional Phenomena It plays an enormous role in our daily lives and can contribute in major ways The emotion of fear is a subjective to the development of psychopathology. feeling of terror, a strong motivation for behavior (escaping or fighting) and a Charles Darwin pointed out that this complex physical or arousal response. kind of reaction is programmed in all animals including humans and serves as Most theorists agree that it is an action a useful function. tendency that states to behave in a certain way (escape) elicited by an external The alarm reaction that is activated event (threat) and a feeling state of during potentially threatening (terror) and accompanied by a (possibly) emergencies is called flight or fight possible physiological response. response. One purpose of feeling state is to The whole purpose of physical rush of motivate us to carry out a behavior. adrenaline during extreme danger helps to mobilize us to escape danger flight or Emotions are short lived, temporary to end it off (fight). states lasting from several minutes to several hours occurring in response to an The Physiology and Purpose of Fear external event. On the other hand, mood Walter Cannon speculated that fear is a more persistent period of affect or activates your cardiovascular system. emotionality. Your blood vessels constrict, raising Both anxiety disorders and mood your arterial pressure and decreasing disorders could be called emotional blood flow to your extremities. disorders. Excess blood is redirected to the skeletal Affect is usually referring to the muscles when needed for emergency. momentary emotional tone that People seem white with fear because accompanies what we say or do. they turned pale due to decreased blood Textbook Example: flow. Trembling with fear with your hair standing may be the result of shivering If you got an A on your test but looked and pilo-erection that conserves heat sad, your friends might think your when blood vessels are constricted. reaction stranger because your affect is expression are generally more ancient not appropriate to the event. and primitive than areas associated with higher cognitive processes such as Negative affect: Fearful, Anxious, reasoning. Depressed. Other researches demonstrates that direct Positive affect: Pleasant, Joyful, Excited. neurobiological connections between The Components of Emotions emotional centers of the brain and parts of the eye (retina) or the ear allow Emotions is composed related emotional activation without the components: influence of higher cognitive processes. 1. Behavior Lazarus concentrates on cognitive 2. Physiology aspects of emotions who proposed that 3. Cognition changes in a person’s environment are Emotion scientists who concentrate on appraised in terms of their potential behavior think that basic patterns of impact on that person. The type of emotion differ from one another. appraisal you make determines the emotions you experience. Textbook Example: Textbook Example: Anger may differ from sadness not only in how it feels, but also behaviorally and If you see somebody holding a gun in the psychologically. dark alley, you will probably appraise the situation as dangerous and experience Emotion is a way of communicating fear. You would make a different between one member of the species to appraisal if you saw a touring guide another. displaying an antique gun in a museum. Textbook Example: - Lazarus would suggest that thinking and If you look scared, your facial expression feeling cannot be separated. will quickly communicate the possibility of danger to your friends who aren’t All components of emotion- behavior, aware of the danger. Your facial physiology, and cognition are considered expression increases their survival all important. because they can now respond more quickly to the threat when it occurs. Anger and Your Heart - This may be one reason why emotions Negative emotions such as hostility and are contagious. anger increase a person’s risk of Cannon concentrated on physiology of developing a heart attack. emotions. He viewed emotions as primarily a brain function. Textbook Example: Ironson and associates compared the In traditional research, the areas of the heart rates during angry events and brain associated with emotional  heart rates in result of exercise. The other observable fear and anxiety experimenters found out that being reactions. angry was sufficient for the heart Textbook Example: pumping efficiency than conducting Latin-American susto describes various exercise. anxiety-based symptoms including insomnia, irritability, phobias, and Adopting a forgiving attitude can the marked somatic symptoms of neutralize the toxic effect of anger on sweating and increased heart rate. cardiovascular activity. However, susto has only one cause. It is when an individual believes that he or Emotions and Psychopathology she has become the object of black magic, witchcraft, and suddenly Suppressing any kind of emotional badly frightened. response such as anger or fear In some cultures, the sinister influence is increases sympathetic nervous called evil eye. system activity. Cannon examined the Haitian Some mood disorders become overly phenomena of voodoo death excited or joyful. These individuals suggested that a sentence of death by are suffering from mania which is a medicine man may create part of a serious mood disorder called intolerable autonomic arousal in the bipolar disorder. participant because there is no social Mania has an alternative period of support. excitement with periods of sadness Fear and phobias are universal, but what and distress. The emotional state of we fear is strongly influenced by our depression is a defining feature of social influences. mood disorders. Gender Emotions and moods also affect our Phobias have peculiar characteristic: The cognitive processes. likelihood of your having a Textbook Example: particular phobia is powerfully If your mood is positive, your influenced by your gender. associations, interpretations, and Gender roles in society impose men impressions tend to be positive. should displayed a strong However, when you’re depressed, personality and endure fear until he then your memories of past events are gets over with it. However, in women, likely to be unpleasant. it is acceptable to acknowledge fearfulness. To survive panic attack, Cultural, Social, and Interpersonal males drink alcohol instead of Factors admitting they’re afraid. Because of this, alcoholism affects more males Voodoo, the Evil Eye, and other Fears than females. - One reason of gender imbalance is Fright Disorder is characterized by that males are most likely to self- exaggerated startle responses and  medicate their fears and panic with Nasal drops exposure and quarantined alcohol. together the affected. Bulimia Nervosa is the severe eating The experiment found out that the greater disorder occurs entirely in young extent of social ties, the smaller the women. chance of catching cold. - Female thinness plagues our society Stigma of Psychopathology: than males’ thinness. 1. Influences the expression of distress. - Taylor found out a unique stress 2. Limits help-seeking behaviors. response of females that is called tend 3. Help maintain the cycle of pathology. and befriend that refers to protecting themselves and their young through Interpersonal relationships give nurturing behavior (tend) and meaning to life and that people who have forming alliances (befriend) with something to live can overcome physical larger social groups. deficiencies and even delay death. - Taylor supposed that this response fits better because females respond to Social and Interpersonal Influences on stress better because they build on the Elderly brain’s attachment caregiving The effect of social and interpersonal system and leads to nurturing and factors on the expression of physical and affiliative behavior. psychological disorders differs in age. Social Effects on Health and Behavior Frequency and Quality are critical. The greater the number and frequency of Low social contacts: social relationships and contacts, the longer you are likely to live and vice 1. Higher mortality. versa. 2. Higher psychopathology. 3. Lower life expectancy Studies also show that social relationships seem to protect Social Stigma individuals against many physical and Psychological disorders can carry out a psychological disorder such as high substantial trauma in our society. blood pressure, depression, alcoholism, arthritis, AIDS, and bearing low birth Textbook Example: weight babies. To be anxious or depressed is to be weak The risk of depression for people who and cowardly. live alone is much higher than for those To be schizophrenic is to be who live with others. Social isolation unpredictable and crazy. increases risk of death. It is the actual perception of loneliness. Global Incidence of Psychological Disorders Textbook Example: Social and cultural factors substantially - During adulthood, we either view our maintain disorders because most societies lives as rewarding or disappointing. have not yet developed the social - It illustrates the comprehensive context for alleviating and to ultimately approach to human development. prevent them. - We can infer that influence on developmental stage and prior Disorders are most common across experiences has a substantial cultures accounting for 13% of global impact on the development of burdens of disease. psychological disorders. Prevalence and incidence influenced by: Gender distribution in depression 1. Poverty. approximately equal until puberty then 2. Political unrest. becomes more common in girls. 3. Technologies Disparities. The Principle of Equifinality Life Span Development It indicates that we must consider a The end of history illusion is a cognitive number of paths to a given outcome. bias that makes us think that we will Textbook Example: change very little in the years to come. A delusional syndrome may be an aspect Based on: of schizophrenia, but it can also arise 1. Biological Maturation. from amphetamine abuse. 2. Psychological Development. Delirium involves difficulty focusing 3. Social Complexity. attention often occurs in older adults 4. Roles and demands. after surgery, but it can also result from 5. Expressions of Disorders. thiamine deficiency or renal (kidney) 6. Treatment response. diseases. We must understand how experiences Different paths can also result from the during different periods of development interaction of psychological and may influence our vulnerability to other biological factors during the various types of stress or to differing stages of development. psychological disorders. Important developmental changes occur at all IN PPT points in life. Genetic Contributions to Erik Erikson suggested that we go Psychopathology through by major crisis during our lives Inherited: Physical traits/personality. and each determined biological maturation, and the social demands made Environmental Factors in the form of at particular times. social and cultural influences, can determine whether genes are turned on. - He believed that we grow and change beyond the age of 65. PPT Example: - Most sensory, emotional, and cognitive processing. Children of parents with schizophrenia who were adopted away as babies. Neurotransmitters (Summary) Perspectives on Causation Serotonin Biological – Organic Conditions. - Regulates behaviors, moods, and thought processes. Psychoanalytic – Unconscious - Low levels and vulnerabilities. Psychological Conflicts. - Implicated in depression and mania. Behavioristic – Faulty learning. Norepinephrine Cognitive Behavior – Maladaptive ways - Respiration, reactions, alarm of perceiving and thinking. responses. Humanistic Existential – Blocked or - Implicated in panic. distorted personal growth. Dopamine Interpersonal – Relationship with - Switch function in brain circuits. others. - Interacts with other Socio-Cultural – Pathological conditions neurotransmitters. such as poverty, prejudice, and - Implicated in schizophrenia. discrimination. - Parkinson’s Disease. Reciprocal Gene Environmental Model Drugs Genes shape how we create our Tamiflu Madness environment. - Useful in worldwide bird flu Inherited predispositions or traits that epidemic. increase one’s likelihood to engage in - Its side effects includes disturbances activities or seek out situations. in consciousness, abnormal behavior, delirium, hallucination, delusions, Example: Divorce, Bullied. and convulsions. Parts of the Brain (Summary) Life Span Developmental Limbic System - Emotions, basic drives, impulse The principle of Equifinality: control. Primary Factor – need to designate Basal Ganglia conditions; without which the - Motor activity. disorder would not have occurred. Predisposing Factor – conditions Forebrain (Cerebral Cortex) that came before and paved the way for a possible later occurrence.  PPT Example: Genetics, Sex, Occupation Precipitating Factor – Condition that proves too much for the individual “triggers” the disorder. PPT Example: Narcotics, Alcohol, Environmental, and Social Factors, Family Separation. Perpetuating Factor – Causing an existing psychiatric disorder to continue. Gut Bacteria and the Brain - The more we eat healthy, good bacteria dominates the body. Vice versa when we eat unhealthy foods.