Cognitive Development Theories PDF

Unit 4 – Cognitive Development Introduction “Every student can learn, just not on the same day or the same way”. – George Evans Each child develops the ability to think and to discover the environment. This is called cognitive development. Cognitive development refers to th...

Unit 4 – Cognitive Development Introduction “Every student can learn, just not on the same day or the same way”. – George Evans Each child develops the ability to think and to discover the environment. This is called cognitive development. Cognitive development refers to the acquisition of knowledge, development of skills, and enrichment of problem solving abilities which facilitate the child’s capacity to think and understand the world. Cognitive development explores the changes in the mental abilities of children throughout their growing years. Cognitive development explores the changes in the mental abilities of children throughout their growing years. https://www.bacttraining.com/2nd-stage-of-piagets-cognitive-development/ In this module, the developing mind is discovered through the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. The module will provide answers on the nature of knowledge among children and how their knowledge change at different pace and time. It is because experiences of children can influence their cognitive development. It will also look into the diverse factors affecting language and cognitive development and as well as the theories of intelligence. This unit will be completed in 12 hours. In this Unit, you are expected to: 1. Differentiate Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory; 2. Explain the crucial role of language to the development of higher-level thinking, reasoning, and memory processes; 3. Understand the different factors affecting cognitive and language development; 4. Explore changes in human mind with emphasis on individual differences and intelligence; 5. Draw implications of these cognitive development theories, theories of intelligence, and theories of language development to education, child care, and parenting; 6. Critique researches on cognitive development of children and adolescents. LET’S START Try This! Rebus puzzles are designed to test your IQ by showing words in a certain way and you have to understand what these words try to say. Watch this video in this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXmXS84DPKc Answer the following questions: 1. How many correct answers did you get? _____________ 2. Was it difficult to answer? Why? _____________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 3. What helped you in getting the clues? _________________________________ 4. How did you come up with your answers? ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________ A. Cognitive Development Theories Topic 1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD. Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory illustrates how young children think differently compared to adults. Piaget’s theory aims to describe how reasoning and thinking develops in children following the different stages of cognitive development. According to Piaget, cognitive development is an unceasing organization and reorganization of mental process as a product of biological maturation (nature) and https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457 environmental experience (nurture). Piaget views children as constructivist wherein they construct reality based on their available knowledge. Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Identify and differentiate the major concepts in Piaget’s theory; 2. Discuss Piaget’s stages of cognitive development; 3. Discriminate behaviors and actions of children with Piaget’s stages of cognitive development;  4. Identify educational implications of Piaget’s theory. LET’S LEARN Do this! Try to analyze the following situations and determine whether the child/children involved is/are toddlers (T), preschoolers (PS), grade school children (GSC), or adolescents (A). 1. Mother hides the toy of Cyrille but Cyrille seems not affected. She cheerfully finds another toy from her toy basket. 2. Nisha is asked to write a story on what life would be during the Civil War. 3. Daddy and Lauren play peek-a-boo. Lauren giggles with delight. 4. Lyndzei and Linae enjoy taking turns helping their mother bake in the kitchen. 5. Mother shows Mariel a bouquet of flowers which consists of tulips and carnation. She asked Mariel if there are more flowers or tulips. Mariel answers, “more tulips”. 6. A group of learners brainstorm about the effect of the pandemic to global economy. 7. “Someone is playing drums in the sky,” Zailon said. 8. Mikka smilingly nods on the telephone to answer her mother who is on the other side of the phone asking if she likes the food prepared for her. 9. A child prefers 10 pieces of 10 peso coins than a 200-peso bill. 10. Teacher Laurie asks her learners to classify the things found in the classroom into living or non-living thing. JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY Jean Piaget coined the term genetic epistemology referring to the study of the origin of knowledge. Piaget’s background in zoology is quite apparent from his definition of intelligence as a basic life function that helps the organism adapt to its environment. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007) Piaget’s Major Concepts: Scheme Piaget proposes that cognition develops through the enhancement and modification of mental structures or schemes. A scheme is a pattern of thought or action and represents the real world. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007). It is any concept or idea on how the world works. Schemes are used by children to interpret and organize the world they live in. Organization and Adaptation Organization is the process by which children combine existing schemes into new and more complex intellectual schemes. Piaget believed that children are continuously organizing whatever schemes they have into more complex and adaptive structures. The goal of organization is to promote adaptation, the process of adjusting to the demands of the environment. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007). Assimilation Assimilation is the process by which children try to interpret new experiences in terms of their existing models of the world, the schemes they already possess. The child tries to adapt to a new stimulus by interpreting it as something familiar. Assimilation is the expansion of the child’s knowledge. Accommodation Accommodation is the process of modifying existing structures in order to account for new experiences. It is the change of cognitive structures or the existing scheme in order to incorporate or adapt to a new experience. Equilibration Equilibration refers to the force which drives the learning process. A child experiences equilibrium when his schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, a state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be incorporated into existing schemas Equilibrium is restored through successful accommodation. (McLeod, S. A., 2018) Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children pass through different stages suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought. (McLeod, S. A., 2018) According to Piaget, these stages of intellectual growth represent qualitatively different levels of functioning and form called invariant developmental sequence; that is, all children pass through the stages in the same order and these stages can never be skipped because each successive stage builds on the accomplishments of previous stages. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007) 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years) In sensorimotor stage, the sensory inputs and motor capabilities of infants are coordinated. Infants use their senses and motor abilities to explore the environment. They manipulate and experiment on their environment. One of the remarkable achievements in this stage is the development of object permanence. Object permanence is the thought that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible or detectable through the other senses. http://sociologycanvas.pbworks.com/w/page/61769093/Sensorimotor%20stage%20of%20development  Table. 1. Summary of the Piaget’s Account of Sensorimotor Development Substage Methods of solving problems or Imitation Object Concept producing interesting Outcomes 1. Reflex activity Exercising and accommodation Some reflexive Tracks moving object but (0–1 month) of inborn reflexes. imitation of motor ignores its disappearance. responses 2. Primary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Looks intently at the spot reactions are centered on one’s own body. behavior that is where an object (1–4 months) mimicked by a disappeared companion 3. Secondary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Searches for partly reactions are directed toward external behavior that is concealed object (4–8 months) objects. mimicked by a companion 4. Coordination of Combining actions to solve Gradual imitation of Clear signs of emerging secondary schemes simple problems (first evidence novel responses; object concept; (8–12 months) of intentionality). deferred imitation searches for and finds of very simple concealed motor acts after a object that has not been brief delay. visibly displaced. 5. Tertiary circular Experimenting to find new ways Systematic Searches for and finds reactions to solve problems or reproduce imitation of novel object that has been visibly (12–18 months) interesting outcomes. responses; deferred displaced imitation of simple motor acts after a long delay 6. Invention of new First evidence of insight as the Deferred imitation Object concept is complete; means through child solves problems at an of complex searches for and finds mental combinations internal, symbolic level. behavioral objects that have been (18–24 months) sequences. hidden through invisible displacements. Source: (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)..  2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years) The preoperational stage is described as a period where children are not yet ready to perform operations. How children think logically is based on their own personal knowledge of the world rather than on conventional knowledge. This stage occurs roughly between the ages 2 and 7. One of the hallmarks of this period is the development of language of the pre-operational child. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/ chapter/piagets-preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development/ Table 2. Important features of preoperational stage Preoperational feature Description Example Symbolic function or Children develop the ability to Children think of a stick as an symbolic thinking make an object or thing stand airplane and lets it fly. for, or represent something. Pretend (or symbolic) play Preschool children frequently A boy arranges chairs, sits in pretend to be someone else front, hold on a circular object (superheroes, mommies, and says, “Fasten your drivers, nurses, daddies) and seatbelts, we are set to go”. He play these roles with props is playing the role of a driver. using objects or things around them. They are engaged in a world of make-believe. Animism Preschoolers belief that A preschool child says sorry inanimate objects have life. to a chair when he accidentally bumps into it. Egocentrism Young children’s inability to A child moves near the recognize another person’s television to watch regardless point of view and look at the of whether other people world in their own cannot watch. perspective. Centration Children focus on one A child’s believes that the characteristic or dimension of tallest person in class is the a situation while disregarding oldest because he focused on all others. height.  Inability to conserve Young children cannot follow A child prefers a 5 pieces of 10 mental transformation. peso coin than a 500 peso bill. (conservation) 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years) According to Piaget, concrete operational stage is considered as a major turning point in the child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). (McLeod, S. A., 2018). It is in concrete operational stage where the child employs logical thought or operations to physical objects. http://psych123.weebly.com/psych-journal/journal-2-jean-piagets- constructivist-theory-of-cognitive-development The following are the characteristics of children in concrete operational stage: a. Classification Classification can be sorting into categories or understanding that there are sub-classes within a group. The child classifies what is in the environment into living things and non-living things. But the child can understand that there are sub-classes within a group, like animals and plants or solid, liquid, and gas. b. Conservation Conservation is the concept that something can stay the same in quantity even though it looks different. That ball of clay is the same amount whether flatten it or rolled into ball. c. Decentration Children need to understand decentration so they can figure out conservation. Decentration is focused on several factors at the same time. A row of 10 cookies is a row of 10 cookies, no matter how far apart they are spaced. At this stage, the child realizes length and number can be manipulated at the same time. d. Reversibility Reversibility involves figuring out that actions can be reversed. It is some sort of mental gymnastics. Here, the child can understand that your pet is Nifu, Nifu is a dog, and a dog is an animal.  e. Seriation Seriation is about mentally sorting a group of things into some sort of order. The child can arrange the toy cars according to color, or from smallest to biggest. f. Sociocentricity Sociocentricity is the ability of the child to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and timetable. (https://www.healthline.com/health/childrens- health/concrete-operational-stage) 4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 12 years and beyond) The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/candimgs/FVMtfI/CNX_Psych_09_04_Reasoning.jpg The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. (Kendra Cherry, 2020) The following are the characteristics of adolescents in formal operational stage: Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning The benchmark of formal operations is what Piaget referred to as hypothetico- deductive reasoning (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Deductive reasoning, which entails reasoning from the general to the specific, much as Sherlock Holmes would do in examining the clues to a crime to catch the villain, is not, in itself, a formal operational ability. (: (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007) Thinking Like a Scientist In addition to the development of deductive reasoning abilities, formal-operational children are hypothesized to be able to think inductively, going from specific observations to broad generalizations. Inductive reasoning is the type of thinking that scientists display, where hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments. : (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)  Relativistic Thinking Adolescents are more likely to engage in relativistic thinking—in other words, they are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept information as absolute truth. Through experience outside the family circle, they learn that rules they were taught as absolute are actually relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules crafted from common sense (don’t touch a hot stove) and those that are based on culturally relative standards (codes of etiquette). This can lead to a period of questioning authority in all domains. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive- development-in-adolescence/) LET’S PRACTICE Watch and reflect Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Piaget’s Cognitive Development a. Watch the video clip, Piaget's stages of cognitive development | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy which you can access at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs b. The video-clip provides audio-visual explanation of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. c. Provide substantial answer in not more than 200 words to the following questions: 1. What does sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory encompass? _______________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the differences in cognitive abilities of preoperational children and concrete operational children? ______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. What stage of Piaget ‘s Cognitive Development do you think you are in and why? ______ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ LET’S ASSESS Check This! Activity 1. What are the educational implications of Piaget’s theory? 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 2. 3. 4. Activity 2. Give some practical ways to teach children in each of Piaget's four stages of Cognitive Development. 5. References: David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com Kendra Cherry, (2020). Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457 McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive- development-in-adolescence/ on August 7, 2020 https://www.healthline.com/health/childrens-health/concrete-operational-stage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u06yS0t2wyQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoAUMmZ0pzc Lesson 2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD. “Through others we become ourselves”- Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky’s theory proposes that (1) cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context that influences the form it takes, and (2) many of a child’s most noteworthy cognitive skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers, and other more competent associates. Hence, cognitive development is socially mediated process that may vary from culture to culture. (David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, 2007) Social and cultural context are important in individual development. The development of higher mental processes originates from social processes. Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Explain socio-cultural influences on cognitive development; 2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories; 3. Identify educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory. LET’S START Do This! Take the Challenge! Identify the following images. Please write the first thought that comes to your mind. __ 1. What images have you identified? ____________________________________________ 2. Were the images familiar? Where did you see them? _____________________________ 3. How did you identify the images? __________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ LET’S LEARN ” By giving our students practice in talking with others, we give them frames for thinking on their own” – Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky believed that social interaction is crucial in cognitive development. Vygotsky claimed that upon birth, humans are born with elementary mental functions which are attention, sensation, perception, and memory. These elementary mental functions are developed into higher mental functions through interaction with the environment. Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge actively through social interaction. Social Influences on Cognitive Development Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery. According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development. Concepts of Vygotsky’s Socio cultural theory In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). More Knowledgeable Other The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. Zone of Proximal Development The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.  This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions. (Robert Slavin) Scaffolding Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by a More Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to perform a task until such time that the child can perform this task independently. According to Vygotsky’s theory, scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level of guidance in order to fit the student’s current level of performance. (https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/vygotsky-theory/) Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways: 1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development. This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures. 2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development. Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. 3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development. According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech). For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language. 4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development. Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking. LET’S PRACTICE Try this! Answer me! Answer the following questions in not more than 250 words: 1. Discuss the concepts of the zone of proximal development and apprenticeship in thinking as they relate to cognitive development. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. How can Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory be applied to education? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 3. You can learn more about the theory of Lev Vygotsky by clicking on the following links: Write your learning insights after watching the video clips. a. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eSgt6rStzg (Scaffolding) b. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Im_GrCgrVA (Zone of proximal development) c. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OP2K6-tp1uM (Socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky) LET’S ASSESS Read each statement below and determine which concept of Vygotsky is described. Write the letter of your choice on the space provided. A. Zone of Proximal Development B. More Knowledgeable Other C. Scaffolding __________ 1. Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skillful partner. __________ 2. Adult-child interactions in which children’s cognitions and modes of thinking are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally relevant activities. __________ 3. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently to the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem. __________ 4. When teachers assist students to adult-like activities, Vygotsky's theory explains this as an example of _______________. __________ 5. Vygotsky’s emphasizes the importance of a more experienced other who serves as a guide to the learner. It is called ___________. __________ 6. The teacher notices that Mariel cannot solve a problem on her own, but can when she is given either adult or peer guidance. __________ 7. Engaging the students in guided participation __________ 8. Mr. Gonzaga teaches students how to perform an overhand throw by gently guiding each student through the correct movement a few times. __________ 9. Several parents who are making costumes for an elementary school play ask the young cast members to assist them with such tasks as cutting fabric, pinning pieces together, and sewing simple hems. __________ 10. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently to the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem References: David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html Slavin, Robert E. Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, Eighth Edition. https://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_8/38/9951/2547615.cw/index.html https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/vygotskys-sociocultural- theory-of-cognitive-development/ https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/vygotsky-theory/  B. INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Jehan U. Gerardo, RPsych, LPT, PsyD INTRODUCTION Children's cognitive abilities - their ability to perform mental operations, to pay attention, to remember and to communicate about what they have learned - are sources of great anxiety for many parents who may wonder whether their children are developing normally. Most people think of intelligence as describing "how smart" someone is. However, the actual definition is quite a bit more complicated than that. Psychological researchers and theorists have actively debated and argued over how to best define and measure intelligence for over one hundred years. Individual theorists and researchers have disagreed on which mixture of cognitive skills and mental capacities (problem solving, abstract thinking, creativity, memory, concentration, interpersonal skills, body/movement skills, etc.) should be included within the definition, and how to measure these important attributes in a fair, culture free manner. At present, intelligence is best thought of not as a single ability or attribute, but rather as a global construct encompassing many different and separate cognitive abilities. Learning Objectives: At the end of this Unit, you should be able to: Explain and differentiate the theories of intelligence. Create a concept map or Graphic organizer illustrating all the theories of intelligence discussed in this unit. Apply concepts and theories on children and adolescents’ cognitive development in school teaching and student care Take an informed stand/position on current teaching practices ACTIVITY Write your understanding of the following statement. INTELLIGENCE is….. the ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture; a set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems in life; the potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves gathering new knowledge. - HOWARD GARDNER ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Binet’s Concept of Intelligence "It seems to us that in intelligence there is a fundamental faculty, the alteration or the lack of which, is of the utmost importance for practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances. A person may be a moron or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good judgment he can never be either. Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties seem of little importance in comparison with judgment" (Binet & Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43). Binet's Intelligence Test Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess mental abilities. Rather than focus on learned information such as math and reading, Binet instead concentrated on other mental abilities such as attention and memory. The scale they developed became known as the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. The test was later revised by psychologist Lewis Terman and became known as the Stanford-Binet. While Binet's original intent was to use the test to identify children who needed additional academic assistance, the test soon became a means to identify those deemed "feeble- minded" by the eugenics movement. Eugenics was the belief that the human population could be genetically improved by controlling who was allowed to have children. By doing this, the eugenicists believed they could produce more desirable inherited characteristics. This shift in how the test was used is notable since Binet himself believed that the intelligence test he had designed had limitations. He believed that intelligence was complex and could not be fully captured by a single quantitative measure. He also believed that intelligence was not fixed. Perhaps most importantly, Binet also felt that such measures of intelligence were not always generalizable and could only apply to children with similar backgrounds and experiences. Today, Alfred Binet is often cited as one of the most influential psychologists in history. While his intelligence scale serves as the basis for modern intelligence tests, Binet himself did not believe that his test measured a permanent or inborn degree of intelligence. According to Binet, an individual's score can vary. He also suggested that factors such as motivation and other variables can play a role in test scores. Spearman and the Theory of General Intelligence “As regards the delicate matter of estimating ‘Intelligence,’ the guiding principle has been not to make any a priori assumptions as to what kind of mental activity may be thus termed with greatest propriety. Provisionally, at any rate, the aim was empirically to examine all the various abilities having any prima facie claims to such title, ascertaining their relations to one another and to other functions” (Spearman, 1904, p. 249-250).” General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Charles Spearman first described the existence of general intelligence in 1904. According to Spearman, this g factor was responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests. Spearman noted that while a child or an adolescent certainly could and often did excel in certain areas, the ones who did well in one area tended also to do well in other areas. For example, a child or an adolescent who does well on a verbal test would probably also do well on other tests.  Those who hold this view believe that intelligence can be measured and expressed by a single number, such as an IQ score. The idea is that this underlying general intelligence influences performance on all cognitive tasks. General intelligence can be compared to athleticism. One might be a very skilled runner, but this does not necessarily mean that they will also be an excellent figure skater. However, because this person is athletic and fit, they will probably perform much better on other physical tasks than an individual who is less coordinated and more sedentary. Charles Spearman was one of the researchers who helped develop a statistical technique known as factor analysis. Factor analysis allows researchers to use a number of different test items to measure common abilities. For example, researchers might find that people who score well on questions that measure vocabulary also perform better on questions related to reading comprehension. Spearman believed that general intelligence represented an intelligence factor underlying specific mental abilities. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether they related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g-factor. Many modern intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, measure some of the cognitive factors that are thought to make up general intelligence. Visual-spatial processing: Abilities such as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes Quantitative reasoning: The capacity to solve problems that involve numbers Knowledge: A person's understanding of a wide range of topics Fluid Reasoning: The ability to think flexibly and solve problems Working memory: The use of short-term memory (such as being able to repeat a list of items) Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities “Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make impulses focal at their early, unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is an inhibitory process (Thurstone, 1924/1973 p. 159).”  Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different primary mental abilities. Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects Reasoning: The ability to find rules Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences "An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings ( Gardner, 1983/2003, p. x)" This theory was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific (primarily sensory) modalities rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability. According to MI Theory, identifying each student’s intelligences has strong ramifications in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified, then teachers can accommodate different children more successfully according to their orientation to learning. Teachers in traditional classrooms primarily teach to the verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences. The nine intelligences are:  ▪ VISUAL/SPATIAL - children who learn best visually and organizing things spatially. They like to see what you are talking about in order to understand. They enjoy charts, graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes - anything eye catching. ▪ VERBAL/LINGUISTIC - children who demonstrate strength in the language arts: speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching. ▪ MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL - children who display an aptitude for numbers, reasoning and problem solving. This is the other half of the children who typically do well in traditional classrooms where teaching is logically sequenced and students are asked to conform. ▪ BODILY/KINESTHETIC - children who experience learning best through activity: games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These children were often labeled "overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit and be still! ▪ MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC - children who learn well through songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments and musical expression. It is easy to overlook children with this intelligence in traditional education. ▪ INTRAPERSONAL - children who are especially in touch with their own feelings, values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are actually quite intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves. ▪ INTERPERSONAL - children who are noticeably people oriented and outgoing, and do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. These children may have typically been identified as "talkative" or " too concerned about being social" in a traditional setting. ▪ NATURALIST - children who love the outdoors, animals, field trips. More than this, though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. The traditional classroom has not been accommodating to these children. ▪ EXISTENTIALIST - children who learn in the context of where humankind stands in the "big picture" of existence. They ask "Why are we here?" and "What is our role in the world?" This intelligence is seen in the discipline of philosophy. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence "I define [intelligence] as your skill in achieving whatever it is you want to attain in your life within your sociocultural context.by capitalizing on your strengths and compensating for, or correcting, your weaknesses" ( Sternberg, July 29, 2004)."  Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves three different factors: 1. Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems Research on the components of human intelligence has shown that although children generally become faster in information processing with age, not all components are executed more rapidly with age. The encoding component first shows a decrease in processing time with age, and then an increase. Apparently, older children realize that their best strategy is to spend more time in encoding the terms of a problem so that they later will be able to spend less time in making sense of these encodings. Similarly, better reasoners tend to spend relatively more time than do poorer reasoners in global, up-front metacomponential planning when they solve difficult reasoning problems. Poorer reasoners, on the other hand, tend to spend relatively more time in detailed planning as they proceed through a problem. Presumably, the better reasoners recognize that it is better to invest more time up front so as to be able to process a problem more efficiently later on. Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities might still not have what is required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a graduate student, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence emphasizes this quality. 2. Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas In work with creative intelligence problems, Robert Sternberg and Todd Lubart asked sixty- three people to create various kinds of products in the realms of writing, art, advertising, and science. For example, in writing, they would be asked to write very short stories, for which the investigators would give them a choice of titles, such as "Beyond the Edge" or "The Octopus's Sneakers." In art, the participants were asked to produce art compositions with titles such as "The Beginning of Time" or "Earth from an Insect's Point of View." Participants created two products in each domain. Sternberg and Lubart found that creativity is relatively, although not wholly, domain-specific. In other words, people are frequently creative in some domains, but not in others. They also found that correlations with conventional ability tests were modest to moderate, demonstrating that tests of creative intelligence measure skills that are largely different from those measured by conventional intelligence tests. A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment in a variety of situations. This common sense is the third type of intelligence.  3. Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make changes to reduce stress. In a study in Usenge, Kenya, Sternberg and colleagues were interested in school-age children's ability to adapt to their indigenous environment. They devised a test of practical intelligence for adaptation to the environment that measured children's informal tacit knowledge of natural herbal medicines that the villagers used to fight various types of infections. The researchers found generally negative correlations between the test of practical intelligence and tests of academic intelligence and school achievement. In other words, people in this context often emphasize practical knowledge at the expense of academic skills in their children's development. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Cognitive Information Processing Theory The theory is generally referred to as the “modal model of memory” or the “Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory”. Their 1968 article is one of the most highly cited in the behavioral and cognitive sciences, and the theory continues to shape research today. In 2019, the journal Memory and Cognition devoted a special issue in recognition of five decades of research inspired by the theory.  The model concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of three stages, as follows: Sensory Memory — sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar. Stage Model of Information Processing One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on short- term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the Stroop effect. In other words, the word “red” will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word appears in, than any word that is colored red. Try an experiment: name the colors of the words you are given in the image below. Do not read the words, but say the color the word is printed in. For example, upon seeing the word “yellow” in green print, you should say “green,” not “yellow.” This experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short term memory, which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes. There are several factors that will impact what and how much information will be processed in working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from one child to another child and from moment to moment based on the child’s cognitive abilities, the amount of information being processed, and one's ability to focus and pay attention. Also, information that is familiar and has often been repeated doesn’t require as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be easier to process. Differences in memory span, Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of long-term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are encoded and organized in long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that can be discussed such as facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to do something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are mental pictures. Implications inside the Classroom Information Processing Theory outlines a way of learning that can be used by teachers inside the classroom. Some examples of classroom implications of the Information Processing Theory include: USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM Principle Example Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. 1. Gain the students' attention. Move around the room and use voice inflections. 2. Bring to mind relevant prior Review previous day's lesson. learning.  Have a discussion about previously covered content. Provide handouts. 3. Point out important Write on the board or use transparencies. information. Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills. 4. Present information in an Go from simple to complex when presenting new organized manner. material. 5. Show students how to Present information in categories. categorize (chunk) related Teach inductive reasoning. information. 6. Provide opportunities for Connect new information to something already known. students to elaborate on new Look for similarities and differences among concepts. information. Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list. 7. Show students how to use Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword coding when memorizing lists. method. State important principles several times in different ways during presentation of information (STM). Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson 8. Provide for repetition of (LTM). learning. Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM). 9. Provide opportunities for Use daily drills for arithmetic facts. overlearning of fundamental Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class. concepts and skills. Implementations to Child Care, Education and Parenting Children have varying intelligence profile. These profiles may be based on influences of learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers should be able to recognize these by: Helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses; Planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objectives; Encouraging children to read more ever day to increase their vocabulary; Bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their perspective about the world and people, and  Lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face interactions Activities at home eg. Asking teenage children for suggestions on family matters –house physical arrangements, things to buy, places to go to for family outing, etc. Allowing more independence eg. use of school allowance, choice on what to wear, etc. Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips, joint internet research, etc., and Develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet blogs LET’S ASSESS 1. Writing Prompts Spearman is well-known for proposing the g factor, which refers to general mental ability. He observed that children's school performance was essentially consistent across all school subjects, rather than being high in some subjects and low in others. This led him to believe that there was a predominant general ability factor of intelligence. What is your personal opinion of intelligence? For example, you may agree with Spearman's g factor, because you have observed consistency in abilities across domains in your friends and family. Conversely, you may feel more aligned with Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences because you feel that you have high intellectual ability in some areas and low intellectual ability in others. Write two to three paragraphs describing your ideas about intelligence, citing supporting observations. 2. Create a Concept map or a Graphic Organizer to illustrate the Theories of Intelligence discussed in this unit 3. What responses can be made by either parents or teachers for varied types of cognitive achievement patterns? Types of Achievement Patterns Response either by Teacher or Parent 1. For overachievers and further inducement to self-value, goal- orientation, positive interrelations, etc. 2. Underachievers and parental/teacher encouragement and support 3. Aggressive underachievers who tend to be disruptive, if not rebellious 4. Egocentrism and over-sensitivity to social acceptance  5. Idealism and adolescents being possibly discouraged by painful realities of life e.g. conflicts at home, challenges in school work, etc. 4. Let’s examine a kindergarten class schedule. 10:30 to 11:00 – Snack Around this time, I usually take the children down to the restroom as a group. All of the children wash their hands before snack. Then it’s on to snack time together. If they’re done early, they’re allowed to choose from a few “quiet choices” (reading, writing, drawing, puzzles, etc.). 11:00 to 11:30 – Playground The “big” pre-k kids get to use the playground for free play during this time. We do movement and gross motor play inside if we can’t go outside. 11:30 to 11:50 – Circle Time This is when we get together as a whole class. We do the calendar, talk about the weather, and say the Pledge. I usually read a book during this time. We also do literacy and math games, songs, etc. during circle time. It’s a great time to connect and talk about how the day’s gone. 11:50 to 12:10 – Resource The kiddos get music or more outside time, while I get a quick break. 12:10 to 12:50 – Lunch We all sit down for lunch, chatting and eating together. If the kids are done early, they can choose some quiet choices. They clean up after themselves and get their backpacks ready to go home after lunch. 12:50 to 1:00 – Story Time We make sure everyone’s packed up and ready to go home. Then it’s time for one more read aloud before the end of the day.  a. To what extent do you think that preschoolers are being prepared for their future student role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Give bullet point answers. References A. Books Acero, Victorina D. et.al (2008). Child and Adolescent Development (1st Edition). Ex Book Store, Inc. Corpuz, Brenda B. et.al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. B. Internet https://fun-a-day.com/preschool-schedule/ https://www.intelltheory.com/binet.shtml https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035 https://www.intelltheory.com/spearman.shtml https://www.intelltheory.com/lthurstone.shtml https://www.intelltheory.com/sternberg.shtml  C. Factors Affective Cognitive Development Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD “Humans create their cognitive powers by creating the environments in which they exercise those powers” -Edwin Hutchins The development of cognition is affected by different factors. As a parent, child care provider, or educator, it is important to foster one’s child's cognitive development as soon as he/she is born because doing so provides the foundation for your child's success in school and later in life. Now that you are an adolescent, you have learned a few things about how the world works. You know, for instance, that you can’t walk through walls or leap into the tops of trees. You know that although you cannot see your car keys they’ve got to be around here someplace. What’s more, you know that if you want to communicate complex ideas like ordering a triple-shot soy vanilla latte with chocolate sprinkles it’s better to use words with meanings attached to them rather than simply gesturing and grunting. People accumulate all this useful knowledge through the process of cognitive development, which involves a multitude of factors, both inherent and learned. (https://nobaproject.com/modules/cognitive-development-in-childhood) Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Explain the different factors affecting cognitive development; 2. Reflect on the variations in cognitive development; 3. Summarize researches on factors affecting cognitive development. LET’S START Try This! Read the following result from a study titled, “Determinants of Cognitive Development in the Early Life of Children in Bhaktapur, Nepal”. Determinants of the Cognitive Composite Score The cognitive composite score was positively associated with the length-for-age z- score. Children who were born with low birth weight (