Understanding Grammar: Parts of Speech & Structure

• Grammar is the set of structural rules governing composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language
• It governs the rules of sentence construction

Parts of Speech

• Nouns: Words that represent people, places, things, or ideas
• Pronouns: Words that replace nouns (e.g., he, she, it, they)
• Verbs: Words that describe actions or states of being
• Adjectives: Words that modify nouns
• Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
• Prepositions: Words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence (e.g., in, on, at, to, from)
• Conjunctions: Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or, so)
• Interjections: Words that express strong emotion (e.g., Wow! Ouch!)

Sentence Structure

• Subject: The noun or pronoun that performs the action of the verb
• Predicate: The part of the sentence that contains the verb and describes what the subject does or is
• Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb
• Phrase: A group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb
• Clause: A group of related words that contains a subject and a verb

Types of Sentences

• Simple sentence: Contains one independent clause
• Compound sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, or) or a semicolon
• Complex sentence: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
• Compound-complex sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses

Verb Tenses

• Present tense: Expresses an action that is happening now or that happens regularly
• Past tense: Expresses an action that happened in the past
• Future tense: Expresses an action that will happen in the future
• Perfect tenses: Express actions that are completed (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect)
• Continuous tenses: Express actions that are ongoing (present continuous, past continuous, future continuous)

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Singular subjects take singular verbs
• Plural subjects take plural verbs
• Compound subjects joined by "and" usually take plural verbs
• Collective nouns (e.g., team, family) can be singular or plural depending on whether they are acting as a unit or as individuals

Pronoun Agreement

• Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace
• Use singular pronouns with singular nouns and plural pronouns with plural nouns
• Avoid gender bias by using gender-neutral pronouns when appropriate

Common Grammatical Errors

• Subject-verb agreement errors
• Pronoun agreement errors
• Misplaced modifiers: Modifiers that are not clearly connected to the words they modify
• Dangling modifiers: Modifiers that do not have a clear subject to modify
• Incorrect verb tense
• Incorrect pronoun case (e.g., using "me" instead of "I" as the subject of a sentence)
• Comma splices: Joining two independent clauses with only a comma
• Run-on sentences: Joining two independent clauses without any punctuation or conjunction
• Sentence fragments: Incomplete sentences that do not have a subject and a verb

Punctuation

• Period (.): Used to end declarative sentences and after abbreviations
• Comma (,): Used to separate items in a list, to set off introductory phrases or clauses, and to join independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction
• Question mark (?): Used to end interrogative sentences
• Exclamation point (!): Used to express strong emotion
• Semicolon (;): Used to join two closely related independent clauses
• Colon (:): Used to introduce a list, explanation, or example
• Apostrophe ('): Used to show possession or to indicate missing letters in contractions
• Quotation marks (" "): Used to enclose direct quotations
• Parentheses ( ): Used to add extra information or clarification
• Brackets [ ]: Used to add clarifying information or corrections within a quotation
• Hyphen (-): Used to join words or parts of words together
• Dash (—): Used to indicate a sudden break in thought or to set off a parenthetical element

Capitalization

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence
• Capitalize proper nouns (e.g., names of people, places, and organizations)
• Capitalize the first word and important words in titles
• Capitalize days of the week, months, and holidays
• Capitalize geographical regions

Active and Passive Voice

• Active voice: The subject performs the action of the verb (e.g., "The dog chased the ball.")
• Passive voice: The subject receives the action of the verb (e.g., "The ball was chased by the dog.")
• Use active voice whenever possible to make your writing clear and concise
• Passive voice can be used when the actor is unknown or unimportant

Word Choice

• Use precise and specific language
• Avoid vague or ambiguous words
• Use a dictionary and thesaurus to find the best word for your meaning
• Avoid clichés and overused phrases
• Be aware of connotations (the emotional associations of words)

Style

• Write in a clear and concise style
• Use short sentences and paragraphs
• Vary your sentence structure to keep your writing interesting
• Avoid jargon and technical terms unless your audience is familiar with them
• Proofread your work carefully for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation

Clauses

• Independent Clause: Expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence
• Dependent Clause: Does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence; it relies on an independent clause to give it meaning
• Adjective Clause: Modifies a noun or pronoun
• Adverb Clause: Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb
• Noun Clause: Functions as a noun in a sentence

Phrases

• Noun Phrase: Functions as a noun
• Verb Phrase: Includes the main verb and any auxiliary verbs
• Prepositional Phrase: Begins with a preposition and modifies a noun or verb
• Appositive Phrase: Renames or identifies a noun or pronoun

Sentence Types Based on Purpose

• Declarative: Makes a statement
• Interrogative: Asks a question
• Imperative: Gives a command
• Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion

Mood

• Indicative: States a fact or opinion
• Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request
• Subjunctive: Expresses a wish, doubt, or condition contrary to fact

Voice

• Active: The subject performs the action
• Passive: The subject receives the action

Agreement

• Subject-Verb Agreement: The verb must agree in number with the subject
• Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: The pronoun must agree in number and gender with its antecedent

Modifiers

• Adjectives: Describe nouns
• Adverbs: Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs

Parallelism

• Using the same grammatical structure for similar items in a sentence

Dangling Modifiers

• A modifier that does not clearly modify any word in the sentence

Misplaced Modifiers

• A modifier that is placed in the wrong part of the sentence, making the meaning unclear

Redundancy

• Unnecessary repetition of words or ideas

Cliches

• Overused phrases or expressions

Jargon

• Specialized language used by a particular group or profession

Colloquialisms

• Informal words or phrases used in everyday conversation

Euphemisms

• Mild or indirect words used to replace more offensive or unpleasant ones

Rhetorical Devices

• Metaphor: A comparison without using "like" or "as"
• Simile: A comparison using "like" or "as"
• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things
• Hyperbole: An exaggeration
• Understatement: Saying less than what is meant
• Irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant
• Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds
• Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds
• Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds

Writing Process

• Prewriting: Brainstorming, outlining, and researching
• Drafting: Writing the first version of your paper
• Revising: Improving the content and organization of your paper
• Editing: Correcting errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation
• Publishing: Sharing your writing with an audience