Thirty Years' War: Religious and Political Divisions

Religious and Political Divisions

• Lutheran and Catholic princes sought to gain followers.
• Both Lutherans and Catholics felt threatened by the spread of Calvinism.
• Lutherans formed the Protestant Union in 1608.
• Catholic princes formed the Catholic League the following year.

The Spark of the Thirty Years' War

• Tensions rose and led to a major European conflict.
• The future Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, headed the Hapsburg family and ruled Bohemia.
• Protestants in Bohemia distrusted Ferdinand due to being a Catholic foreigner.
• Ferdinand closed Protestant churches, triggering a revolt.
• He sent an army to suppress the rebellion, prompting German Protestant princes to challenge the emperor.
• The Thirty Years' War began in 1618, fueled by religious, territorial, and power struggles among European ruling families.

Early Stages of the Thirty Years' War

• The war lasted from 1618 to 1648.
• During the first 12 years, Hapsburg armies from Austria and Spain dominated.
• They suppressed the Czech uprising and defeated supporting German Protestants.
• Ferdinand II maintained his army of 125,000 by allowing them to plunder German villages.

Shifting Tides

• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his well-organized army of 23,000 altered the course of the war in 1630.
• They expelled Hapsburg forces from northern Germany.
• Gustavus Adolphus died in battle in 1632.
• Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin of France played a dominant role.
• Despite being Catholic, they feared the Hapsburgs and supported the German and Swedish Protestants against them.
• Richelieu sent French troops in 1635 to aid the Protestants' struggle against the Hapsburg armies.

Devastation and Aftermath

• The war caused extensive damage to Germany.
• Germany's population decreased from around 20 million to 16 million.
• Trade, agriculture, and the German economy were severely disrupted.
• The recovery in Germany was lengthy and arduous.
• This devastation partially caused Germany to remain ununified until the 1800s.

Peace of Westphalia

• The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 concluded the Thirty Years' War.
• It weakened Hapsburg power in Spain and Austria.
• It strengthened France acquiring German territories.
• The treaty granted independence to German princes from the Holy Roman Emperor.
• The treaty ended religious wars in Europe.
• A new method of peace negotiation was introduced, involving all participants settling war issues and determining peace terms.

New European Order

• The treaty abandoned the concept of a Catholic empire ruling most of Europe.
• Europe was recognized as a collection of equal, independent states.
• The system marked the start of the modern state system.

Central vs. Western Europe

• Strong states formed more slowly in central Europe compared to western Europe.
• Major powers in central Europe, such as Poland, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire, lacked strength in the mid-1600s.
• Central Europe's economy developed differently from Western Europe's.
• Serfs in western Europe gained freedom and moved to towns, joining middle-class townspeople.
• This resulted in economic empowerment through the commercial revolution and capitalism.
• In Central Europe, the landowning aristocracy restricted serfs' freedom to maintain their labor force for large harvests.
• They profited by selling surplus crops to Western European cities.

Factors Weakening Central Europe

• Landowning nobles suppressed serfs development.
• The Polish nobility limited its king's power, resulting in a weak, ununified state.
• The Ottoman Empire's European conquest halted after threatening Vienna in 1529, leading to decline.
• The Holy Roman Empire, weakened by the Thirty Years' War, lost authority.
• A power vacuum emerged in central Europe, which German-speaking families sought to fill by becoming absolute rulers in the late 1600s.

Rise of the Hapsburgs

• The Hapsburgs of Austria rose to become absolute monarchs.
• They reconquered Bohemia during the Thirty Years' War.
• They eliminated Protestants and introduced a Czech nobility loyal to them.
• The government was centralized, and a standing army was established after the war.
• By 1699, the Hapsburgs regained Hungary from the Ottoman Empire.

Challenges and Solutions

• Charles VI faced challenges ruling his diverse empire (Czechs, Hungarians, Italians, Croatians, Germans).
• The Austrian, Hungarian, and Bohemian crowns kept the empire together.
• Charles VI sought to ensure continued Hapsburg rule over all territories.
• He persuaded European leaders to recognize Maria Theresa, his eldest daughter, as his heir.
• Despite the agreement, Maria Theresa faced war, with Prussia as her main enemy.

Rise of Prussia

• Prussia rose to become a major power in the late 1600s, similarly to Austria.
• The Hohenzollerns, Prussia's ruling family, sought to gain power.
• These ambitions destabilized Central Europe's balanced power.
• The Hohenzollerns transformed their state from holdings including Brandenburg and Prussia.
• Frederick William, the Great Elector, decided a strong army was essential for safety after the Thirty Years' War.
• The Great Elector and his successors established a standing army to protect their lands, leading to a rigidly controlled, militarized society.

War of the Austrian Succession

• In 1740, Maria Theresa took over as leader.
• Frederick II of Prussia became king 5 months later.
• Frederick wanted Silesia because it was a land which bordered Prussia.
• It produced iron ore, textiles, and food products.
• Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's strength, assuming she would be weak due to her gender.
• In 1740, he invaded Silesia, which sparked the War of the Austrian Succession.
• Maria Theresa asked the Hungarian nobles for aid.
• Great Britain joined Austria against France.
• Maria Theresa stopped Prussia’s aggression.
• Maria Theresa lost Silesia in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
• With control of Silesia, Prussia gained the status of major European power.

Diplomatic Revolution and Seven Years' War

• Maria Theresa allied with France.
• Austria, France, and Russia allied against Britain and Prussia.
• Russia was playing a role in European affairs for almost the first time.
• Frederick attacked Saxony (Austrian ally) in 1756.
• The war was between every great European power.
• The war in Europe, India, and North America lasted until 1763.
• The war was called the Seven Years' War.
• The territorial situation in Europe remained the same.