Podcast
Questions and Answers
In correlational research, which statement accurately describes the relationship between variables?
In correlational research, which statement accurately describes the relationship between variables?
- Variables are manipulated to observe causal relationships.
- Variables are measured to determine if they covary. (correct)
- At least one variable is deliberately altered while measuring others.
- Only one variable is examined without making association claims.
Which research design is characterized by the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable?
Which research design is characterized by the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable?
- Descriptive
- Quasi-experimental
- Experimental (correct)
- Correlational
Which research design focuses on examining a single variable without making association claims?
Which research design focuses on examining a single variable without making association claims?
- Descriptive (correct)
- Experimental
- Predictive
- Correlational
What distinguishes a mediator from a moderator in research design?
What distinguishes a mediator from a moderator in research design?
In a study examining the relationship between social media use and self-esteem, which variable represents the 'mediator' if it explains why social media use impacts self-esteem?
In a study examining the relationship between social media use and self-esteem, which variable represents the 'mediator' if it explains why social media use impacts self-esteem?
Consider a study on the correlation between social media use and self-esteem. What would a 'moderator' variable indicate in this context?
Consider a study on the correlation between social media use and self-esteem. What would a 'moderator' variable indicate in this context?
In research, what critical issue arises when third variables are not properly accounted for?
In research, what critical issue arises when third variables are not properly accounted for?
What is the primary limitation of correlational studies in determining relationships between variables?
What is the primary limitation of correlational studies in determining relationships between variables?
What is the main purpose of using a cross-lag design in correlational research?
What is the main purpose of using a cross-lag design in correlational research?
In the context of research design, what does 'statistically controlling for' a third variable mean?
In the context of research design, what does 'statistically controlling for' a third variable mean?
Why is it important to examine mediators and moderators in research?
Why is it important to examine mediators and moderators in research?
How do experiments primarily establish causal relationships between variables?
How do experiments primarily establish causal relationships between variables?
What is the defining characteristic of a between-subjects experimental design?
What is the defining characteristic of a between-subjects experimental design?
In a between-subjects experiment, what is the critical role of random assignment?
In a between-subjects experiment, what is the critical role of random assignment?
What does a control condition in an experiment allow researchers to do?
What does a control condition in an experiment allow researchers to do?
When interpreting experimental results, what is indicated if both upward and downward social comparisons lead to decreased self-esteem relative to a control group?
When interpreting experimental results, what is indicated if both upward and downward social comparisons lead to decreased self-esteem relative to a control group?
In experimental design, what is the primary purpose of control variables?
In experimental design, what is the primary purpose of control variables?
What risk is increased when too many variables are tightly controlled in an experiment?
What risk is increased when too many variables are tightly controlled in an experiment?
Which of the following best describes a 'nuisance variable' in experimental research?
Which of the following best describes a 'nuisance variable' in experimental research?
How do disturbance variables primarily affect experimental outcomes?
How do disturbance variables primarily affect experimental outcomes?
What distinguishes a confound from a disturbance variable in experimental research?
What distinguishes a confound from a disturbance variable in experimental research?
In an experiment, if the environment in which one group receives the IV is systematically different from where the other group receives the IV, what type of variable is the environmental difference considered?
In an experiment, if the environment in which one group receives the IV is systematically different from where the other group receives the IV, what type of variable is the environmental difference considered?
What critical threat to internal validity is introduced when participants systematically differ across experimental conditions?
What critical threat to internal validity is introduced when participants systematically differ across experimental conditions?
In the context of experimentation, why is the placebo effect considered a confounding variable?
In the context of experimentation, why is the placebo effect considered a confounding variable?
What is the purpose of including a placebo control group in a study?
What is the purpose of including a placebo control group in a study?
How do demand characteristics act as a confounding variable in experiments?
How do demand characteristics act as a confounding variable in experiments?
What does 'experimenter bias' refer to in research?
What does 'experimenter bias' refer to in research?
What is the primary consequence of having a large number of uncontrolled disturbance variables in an experiment?
What is the primary consequence of having a large number of uncontrolled disturbance variables in an experiment?
How might a researcher address unavoidable disturbance variables?
How might a researcher address unavoidable disturbance variables?
In experimental design, which approach involves turning a potential confounding variable into an independent variable?
In experimental design, which approach involves turning a potential confounding variable into an independent variable?
What is the main advantage of turning potential confounds into disturbance variables?
What is the main advantage of turning potential confounds into disturbance variables?
A researcher finds that the influence of social media on self-esteem differs significantly between teenagers and adults. If this age difference was initially ignored but is now recognized as influencing the study's outcome, how should ‘age’ be classified?
A researcher finds that the influence of social media on self-esteem differs significantly between teenagers and adults. If this age difference was initially ignored but is now recognized as influencing the study's outcome, how should ‘age’ be classified?
In an experiment examining the impact of external stimuli on dreaming, participants spend two nights in a lab. On one night, TV programs are played quietly; the other is silent. If the order is not counterbalanced and the TV program night is always the second night, what kind of nuisance variable is introduced?
In an experiment examining the impact of external stimuli on dreaming, participants spend two nights in a lab. On one night, TV programs are played quietly; the other is silent. If the order is not counterbalanced and the TV program night is always the second night, what kind of nuisance variable is introduced?
In an experiment, a dolphin trainer uses either ‘nose scratch’ rewards or ‘tasty mackerel’ rewards. What does 'type of reward' represent?
In an experiment, a dolphin trainer uses either ‘nose scratch’ rewards or ‘tasty mackerel’ rewards. What does 'type of reward' represent?
A dolphin trainer uses only female dolphins, what does this represent?
A dolphin trainer uses only female dolphins, what does this represent?
In a dolphin training experiment, some dolphins already have prior experience. What would this prior experience be classified as?
In a dolphin training experiment, some dolphins already have prior experience. What would this prior experience be classified as?
If a dolphin is fed mackerel in afteroon, but gets a nose scratch in the morning, what is this time of day effect?
If a dolphin is fed mackerel in afteroon, but gets a nose scratch in the morning, what is this time of day effect?
When there are many disturbance variables, which error do you risk?
When there are many disturbance variables, which error do you risk?
In a study of external stimuli on sleep the subjects sleep in a lab. One night they are exposed to TV programs, the other night it's silent in the lab. What is the independent variable?
In a study of external stimuli on sleep the subjects sleep in a lab. One night they are exposed to TV programs, the other night it's silent in the lab. What is the independent variable?
In an experiment studying the impact of a new teaching method on student test scores, socioeconomic status is suspected to influence the outcome. If researchers intentionally sample participants from varying socioeconomic backgrounds to ensure representation across all conditions, how is socioeconomic status being addressed?
In an experiment studying the impact of a new teaching method on student test scores, socioeconomic status is suspected to influence the outcome. If researchers intentionally sample participants from varying socioeconomic backgrounds to ensure representation across all conditions, how is socioeconomic status being addressed?
A researcher investigates the impact of room lighting (bright vs. dim) on task performance. Unbeknownst to the researcher, the 'bright' room has a slight hum from a faulty light fixture, not present in the 'dim' room. What type of variable is the hum?
A researcher investigates the impact of room lighting (bright vs. dim) on task performance. Unbeknownst to the researcher, the 'bright' room has a slight hum from a faulty light fixture, not present in the 'dim' room. What type of variable is the hum?
Consider a study evaluating a weight loss drug where participants in the control group receive sugar pills. If participants in the drug group report significantly more weight loss, but so do participants in the sugar pill group, what concern arises?
Consider a study evaluating a weight loss drug where participants in the control group receive sugar pills. If participants in the drug group report significantly more weight loss, but so do participants in the sugar pill group, what concern arises?
In an experiment examining the effect of caffeine on test performance, some participants are allowed to choose their study environment (library vs. coffee shop), while others are assigned a quiet room. What critical error has been introduced?
In an experiment examining the effect of caffeine on test performance, some participants are allowed to choose their study environment (library vs. coffee shop), while others are assigned a quiet room. What critical error has been introduced?
A researcher conducting a study on the effects of a mindfulness app on anxiety unintentionally conveys their enthusiasm for the app to the experimental group, but remains neutral when interacting with the control group. What potential bias is introduced?
A researcher conducting a study on the effects of a mindfulness app on anxiety unintentionally conveys their enthusiasm for the app to the experimental group, but remains neutral when interacting with the control group. What potential bias is introduced?
In a study examining the impact of violent video games on aggression, a researcher finds some participants are naturally more aggressive than others before the study begins. If these pre-existing differences are not related to the video game manipulation, what type of variable are they considered?
In a study examining the impact of violent video games on aggression, a researcher finds some participants are naturally more aggressive than others before the study begins. If these pre-existing differences are not related to the video game manipulation, what type of variable are they considered?
A researcher aims to study the impact of a new medication on depression. To minimize the impact of participant expectations, what strategy should the researcher employ?
A researcher aims to study the impact of a new medication on depression. To minimize the impact of participant expectations, what strategy should the researcher employ?
A study investigates the impact of a math intervention on student test scores, but the intervention group also receives additional tutoring not available to the control group. What type of variable is the extra tutoring?
A study investigates the impact of a math intervention on student test scores, but the intervention group also receives additional tutoring not available to the control group. What type of variable is the extra tutoring?
How does ‘turning a potential confound into a disturbance variable’ affect an experiment's internal validity?
How does ‘turning a potential confound into a disturbance variable’ affect an experiment's internal validity?
Imagine researchers are investigating the impact of a new therapy on social anxiety, but they notice participants' motivation levels fluctuate significantly day to day. What adjustment to the experimental design could minimize the impact of motivation as a disturbance variable?
Imagine researchers are investigating the impact of a new therapy on social anxiety, but they notice participants' motivation levels fluctuate significantly day to day. What adjustment to the experimental design could minimize the impact of motivation as a disturbance variable?
In a study of music on cognitive performance all participants complete a memory task and then complete an identical memory task while listening to classical music. What is the most significant threat to the study's internal validity?
In a study of music on cognitive performance all participants complete a memory task and then complete an identical memory task while listening to classical music. What is the most significant threat to the study's internal validity?
Consider a study investigating the effectiveness of a reading intervention. High school students with reading difficulties are recruited, and their reading comprehension is measured before and after the intervention. What threat poses specific concern?
Consider a study investigating the effectiveness of a reading intervention. High school students with reading difficulties are recruited, and their reading comprehension is measured before and after the intervention. What threat poses specific concern?
A researcher discovers that the effect of a mindfulness intervention on stress levels is only significant for participants who report high initial levels of stress; for those with low stress, the intervention has no effect. In this scenario, what role does initial stress level play?
A researcher discovers that the effect of a mindfulness intervention on stress levels is only significant for participants who report high initial levels of stress; for those with low stress, the intervention has no effect. In this scenario, what role does initial stress level play?
A researcher is studying the impact of a new therapy on depression symptoms. Participants are randomly assigned to either the therapy group or a waitlist control group. What is the primary purpose of the waitlist control group in this study?
A researcher is studying the impact of a new therapy on depression symptoms. Participants are randomly assigned to either the therapy group or a waitlist control group. What is the primary purpose of the waitlist control group in this study?
In a study on test anxiety, participants are given the option to take a practice test beforehand. The researcher later notices that those who chose to take practice test also score higher on the actual test. What issue exists?
In a study on test anxiety, participants are given the option to take a practice test beforehand. The researcher later notices that those who chose to take practice test also score higher on the actual test. What issue exists?
Flashcards
Correlational Study
Correlational Study
Measures two variables (predictor & criterion) to see if they covary; variables are measured, not manipulated.
Experimental Study
Experimental Study
Manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable.
Descriptive Study
Descriptive Study
Examines only one variable; does not make association claims.
Mediator Variable
Mediator Variable
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Moderator Variable
Moderator Variable
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Causation in Correlational Studies
Causation in Correlational Studies
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Between Subjects design
Between Subjects design
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Within Subjects design
Within Subjects design
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Independent Variable (IV)
Independent Variable (IV)
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Dependent Variable (DV)
Dependent Variable (DV)
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The purpose of a Control Condition
The purpose of a Control Condition
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Control Variable
Control Variable
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Internal Validity
Internal Validity
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External Validity
External Validity
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Nuisance Variables
Nuisance Variables
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Confound Variables
Confound Variables
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Design Confounds
Design Confounds
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Selection Effects
Selection Effects
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Disturbance variables
Disturbance variables
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Demand characteristics (as confounds)
Demand characteristics (as confounds)
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Experimenter/observer bias
Experimenter/observer bias
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Disturbance variables
Disturbance variables
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Correlational Research Design
Correlational Research Design
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Experimental Research Design
Experimental Research Design
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Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Research Design
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Study Notes
- Defining features distinguish Correlational, Experimental, and Descriptive research designs.
- Topics include the limitations of correlational studies and experiments.
- Also covers control variables, disturbance variables, and confounds.
Correlational Design
- Measures two variables, a predictor and criterion, to ascertain covariance.
- The variables are measured without manipulation.
Experimental Design
- It involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable.
Descriptive Design
- It examines only one variable.
- There is no association claim in this design.
Mediators
- A variable that explains why X leads to Y.
- It answers why two variables are related.
Moderators
- It answers "for whom" or "in what situations" two variables are related.
Mediators vs. Moderators vs. 3rd Variables
- Mediator explains why X and Y are related.
- Moderator identifies for whom or under what conditions X and Y are related.
- Third Variable indicates X and Y are not really related, but seem to be.
Summary of Correlational Studies
- A relationship between X and Y is found, but cause cannot be determined.
- Temporal precedence is established through cross-lag design, though 3rd variables may still be present.
- Some 3rd variables are statistically controlled via multiple regression.
- Ruling out 3rd variables does not solve the temporal precedence issue.
- Mediators and moderators of the relationship between X and Y are examined.
- Med/mod can be included in experiments, not just correlation studies.
Experiment Characteristics
- Experiments can determine the existence of a causal relationship between two or more variables.
Between-Subjects Design
- Each participant is randomly assigned to a single experimental condition.
Within-Subjects Design
- Each participant experiences all conditions.
Defining Characteristics of a Between-Subjects Experiment
- Manipulated independent variable (IV) like defining exposure to social media versus a control.
- Measured dependent variable (DV) like determining state self-esteem on a rating scale.
- Random assignment to experimental condition ensures everyone has an equal chance of being assigned.
Possibilities When There Are 3 Conditions
- The first condition is upward social comparison on Instagram.
- The second condition is downward social comparison on Instagram.
- The third condition is a control in which participants read an article.
Variables in Experiments
- They include variables of interest, control variables, and nuisance variables.
Control Variables
- Examples include time on social media and delay between IV experience and DV data collection.
- Internal validity is the extent to which one can be sure that the IV is the only cause of changes in the DV.
- External validity refers to the ability to generalize results to other people.
Nuisance Variables
- Confounds reliably change with levels of the IV, creating systematic error.
- Disturbance variables are unrelated to the IV, affecting the DV randomly and creating unsystematic error.
Confounds in Experiments
- Possible confounds include: design, selection effects, and placebo effects.
- Systematic differences occur across conditions; for example, looking at social media on the computer but reading a news article in print.
- Participants differ systematically across conditions - for example, teens are in one condition, and adults are in another.
Placebo Effect as a Confound
- There is a treatment with counseling, or doing nothing as a control.
- There is an expectation that treatment will work, vs. no expectation.
Disturbance Variables in Experiments
- Examples include: time of testing, participant demographics, and individual differences
- Natural differences give rise to disturbance variables.
- Assessing these is not often possible ahead of time.
Summary of Research Designs
- Correlational designs examine 2 variables and determine the relationship between them, but do not infer a causal relationship.
- Experimental designs manipulate IV to examine effect on DV and can infer causal relationship..
- Descriptive designs provide descriptions for a single variable.
Additional Important Terms to Study
- Observer bias, demand characteristics, placebo control, weak manipulations, ceiling and floor effects, manipulation check, measurement error
- Individual differences, situation noise, power, null effects, insensitive measures
- Four validities: Internal, External, Construct, Statistical are important terms.
Avoiding Confounds and Disturbance Variables
- You can turn them into IVs to examine their effect.
- You can turn them into control valuables to hold them constant.
- You turn confounds into disturbance variables and let them vary randomly.
The Key To Controlling Confounds and Disturbance Variables
- The same variable, such as age, can be an IV, a control variable, a disturbance variable, or a confound.
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Description
Examine the defining features of correlational, experimental, and descriptive research designs, including their limitations. Explore control, disturbance variables, and confounds. Understand mediators, moderators, and their differences from third variables.
