Podcast
Questions and Answers
If a substance maintains a constant volume but adapts to the shape of its container, which state of matter does it exemplify?
If a substance maintains a constant volume but adapts to the shape of its container, which state of matter does it exemplify?
- Gas
- Liquid (correct)
- Solid
- Plasma
In an environment with negligible gravity, what primarily distinguishes mass from weight?
In an environment with negligible gravity, what primarily distinguishes mass from weight?
- Mass is affected by gravitational pull, while weight remains constant.
- Both weight and mass decrease proportionally.
- Weight is affected by gravitational pull, while mass remains constant. (correct)
- Both weight and mass increase proportionally.
Which group of elements constitutes approximately 96% of the human body's weight?
Which group of elements constitutes approximately 96% of the human body's weight?
- Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen (correct)
- Iron, sodium, chlorine, magnesium
- Copper, zinc, manganese, fluorine
- Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium
What characteristic of gases differentiates them from liquids and solids?
What characteristic of gases differentiates them from liquids and solids?
Which of the following describes trace elements in the human body?
Which of the following describes trace elements in the human body?
If an element is referred to as the 'smallest indivisible unit', what is being described?
If an element is referred to as the 'smallest indivisible unit', what is being described?
How does the density of solids typically compare to that of liquids and gases?
How does the density of solids typically compare to that of liquids and gases?
What is the primary distinction between an element and a compound?
What is the primary distinction between an element and a compound?
If a segment of DNA has the sequence 5'-GCTAGTC-3', what would be the sequence of its complementary strand?
If a segment of DNA has the sequence 5'-GCTAGTC-3', what would be the sequence of its complementary strand?
During transcription, RNA polymerase reads a template DNA strand and synthesizes a complementary RNA molecule. If a template DNA strand has the sequence 3'-TTCAGTCGT-5', what will be the corresponding RNA sequence synthesized?
During transcription, RNA polymerase reads a template DNA strand and synthesizes a complementary RNA molecule. If a template DNA strand has the sequence 3'-TTCAGTCGT-5', what will be the corresponding RNA sequence synthesized?
Which of the following best describes the primary function of messenger RNA (mRNA) in a cell?
Which of the following best describes the primary function of messenger RNA (mRNA) in a cell?
An atom has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. What is its atomic number?
An atom has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. What is its atomic number?
A researcher is analyzing a nucleic acid sample and finds that it contains uracil. Based on this information, the researcher can conclude that the sample is composed of:
A researcher is analyzing a nucleic acid sample and finds that it contains uracil. Based on this information, the researcher can conclude that the sample is composed of:
Which subatomic particle primarily determines the mass of an atom?
Which subatomic particle primarily determines the mass of an atom?
What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?
What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?
If an element has an atomic number of 12, how many protons and electrons does a neutral atom of that element contain?
If an element has an atomic number of 12, how many protons and electrons does a neutral atom of that element contain?
What distinguishes isotopes of the same element?
What distinguishes isotopes of the same element?
An atom loses two electrons. What type of ion does it become?
An atom loses two electrons. What type of ion does it become?
Which of the following elements is most likely to be chemically inert?
Which of the following elements is most likely to be chemically inert?
Which type of chemical bond involves the sharing of electrons between atoms?
Which type of chemical bond involves the sharing of electrons between atoms?
In a water molecule ($H_2O$), oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. What type of bond forms between oxygen and hydrogen?
In a water molecule ($H_2O$), oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. What type of bond forms between oxygen and hydrogen?
How many electrons can the first electron shell (K) hold?
How many electrons can the first electron shell (K) hold?
Which of the following best describes the formation of an ionic bond?
Which of the following best describes the formation of an ionic bond?
What is the valence shell of an atom?
What is the valence shell of an atom?
Which of the following determines whether an atom is reactive or inert?
Which of the following determines whether an atom is reactive or inert?
What is the relationship between atomic number and the arrangement of elements on the periodic table?
What is the relationship between atomic number and the arrangement of elements on the periodic table?
Carbon can form single and double covalent bonds. How many pairs of electrons are shared in a double covalent bond?
Carbon can form single and double covalent bonds. How many pairs of electrons are shared in a double covalent bond?
Which of the following is an example of cation?
Which of the following is an example of cation?
Which characteristic distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
Which characteristic distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
How does an enzyme accelerate biochemical reactions?
How does an enzyme accelerate biochemical reactions?
Which of the following is the primary function of phospholipids in the body?
Which of the following is the primary function of phospholipids in the body?
What determines the unique properties of each of the 20 different amino acids?
What determines the unique properties of each of the 20 different amino acids?
Synovial fluid in joints reduces friction due to which property of water?
Synovial fluid in joints reduces friction due to which property of water?
Why does perspiration have a cooling effect on the skin?
Why does perspiration have a cooling effect on the skin?
Which of the following is an example of polysaccharide?
Which of the following is an example of polysaccharide?
If a protein's environment is altered and it loses its shape, what level of protein structure has been affected?
If a protein's environment is altered and it loses its shape, what level of protein structure has been affected?
What happens when an ionic compound dissolves in water?
What happens when an ionic compound dissolves in water?
Why are nonpolar molecules hydrophobic?
Why are nonpolar molecules hydrophobic?
What is the key characteristic of lipids that makes them hydrophobic?
What is the key characteristic of lipids that makes them hydrophobic?
Why are electrolytes important in physiological functions?
Why are electrolytes important in physiological functions?
What structural feature is common to steroids, differentiating them from other types of lipids?
What structural feature is common to steroids, differentiating them from other types of lipids?
How do buffers help maintain pH stability in the body?
How do buffers help maintain pH stability in the body?
Which of the following best describes the role of prostaglandins?
Which of the following best describes the role of prostaglandins?
What is the primary difference between a colloid and a suspension?
What is the primary difference between a colloid and a suspension?
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during the synthesis of a polypeptide?
What type of bond is formed between amino acids during the synthesis of a polypeptide?
What determines whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral?
What determines whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral?
Which of the following is the function of leukotrienes??
Which of the following is the function of leukotrienes??
In which type of chemical reaction is water used to break down a polymer into monomers?
In which type of chemical reaction is water used to break down a polymer into monomers?
How do glycerides contribute to the body's functions?
How do glycerides contribute to the body's functions?
What does it mean for glucose, fructose, and galactose to be isomers?
What does it mean for glucose, fructose, and galactose to be isomers?
Which of the following carbohydrates is formed from two glucose molecules?
Which of the following carbohydrates is formed from two glucose molecules?
What role does cholesterol play in animal cells?
What role does cholesterol play in animal cells?
If a substance has a pH of 2, how would you describe it?
If a substance has a pH of 2, how would you describe it?
What is produced as a result of dehydration synthesis?
What is produced as a result of dehydration synthesis?
Which is a key function of glycogen?
Which is a key function of glycogen?
If blood pH rises above 7.45, what condition occurs?
If blood pH rises above 7.45, what condition occurs?
Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?
Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?
What property of water is most responsible for the phenomenon of thermal inertia?
What property of water is most responsible for the phenomenon of thermal inertia?
Which characteristic distinguishes a compound from a molecule?
Which characteristic distinguishes a compound from a molecule?
In the context of chemical reactions in the body, what is the BEST definition of metabolism?
In the context of chemical reactions in the body, what is the BEST definition of metabolism?
Which of the following BEST explains the role of enzymes in chemical reactions?
Which of the following BEST explains the role of enzymes in chemical reactions?
Consider the reaction $N_2 + 3H_2 \rightarrow 2NH_3$. What type of reaction is this, and what does it represent?
Consider the reaction $N_2 + 3H_2 \rightarrow 2NH_3$. What type of reaction is this, and what does it represent?
If a chemical reaction releases more energy than it consumes, it is classified as:
If a chemical reaction releases more energy than it consumes, it is classified as:
What property of water allows it to dissolve a wide range of chemical substances?
What property of water allows it to dissolve a wide range of chemical substances?
Which of the following is MOST directly related to water's ability to act as a lubricant?
Which of the following is MOST directly related to water's ability to act as a lubricant?
What is the role of hydrogen bonds in water and what properties of water do they influence?
What is the role of hydrogen bonds in water and what properties of water do they influence?
Which of the following BEST exemplifies a decomposition reaction?
Which of the following BEST exemplifies a decomposition reaction?
In chemical notation, what does the coefficient '2' in front of $H_2O$ indicate?
In chemical notation, what does the coefficient '2' in front of $H_2O$ indicate?
Which of the following BEST describes why a change in body water content can have severe consequences?
Which of the following BEST describes why a change in body water content can have severe consequences?
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between potential and kinetic energy?
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between potential and kinetic energy?
A substance that lacks carbon and hydrogen as its primary structural ingredients is BEST described as:
A substance that lacks carbon and hydrogen as its primary structural ingredients is BEST described as:
How does surface tension affect the interaction of small objects with water, such as in the context of dust on the eye's surface?
How does surface tension affect the interaction of small objects with water, such as in the context of dust on the eye's surface?
What is the significance of water being denser as a liquid than as a solid (ice)?
What is the significance of water being denser as a liquid than as a solid (ice)?
All of the elements in the second column of the periodic table all have a single valence electron.
All of the elements in the second column of the periodic table all have a single valence electron.
The mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
The mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Water is formed during a dehydration synthesis.
Water is formed during a dehydration synthesis.
A glycoside bond is formed during this dehydration process.
A glycoside bond is formed during this dehydration process.
This dehydration process then forms a monosaccharide
This dehydration process then forms a monosaccharide
The ability of an enzyme’s active sites to bind only substrates of compatible shape and charge is known as ____________.
The ability of an enzyme’s active sites to bind only substrates of compatible shape and charge is known as ____________.
_______reactions release energy.
_______reactions release energy.
Together, just four elements make up more than 95 percent of the body’s mass. These include ________.
Together, just four elements make up more than 95 percent of the body’s mass. These include ________.
The characteristic that gives an element its distinctive properties is its number of ________
The characteristic that gives an element its distinctive properties is its number of ________
oxygen has an atomic number of eight. how many electron shells does it likely have?
oxygen has an atomic number of eight. how many electron shells does it likely have?
CH4 is methane. This compound is ________ .
CH4 is methane. This compound is ________ .
which chemical bond shares electrons that then complete their valance shell.
which chemical bond shares electrons that then complete their valance shell.
the smallest unit of an element that still retains the distinctive behavior of that element is an _____
the smallest unit of an element that still retains the distinctive behavior of that element is an _____
which of the following is a molecule, but not a compound?
which of the following is a molecule, but not a compound?
A molecule of water contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. these are linked with_____
A molecule of water contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. these are linked with_____
uracil_____
uracil_____
In DNA, nucleotide bonding forms a compound with a characteristic shape known as a(n)_____
In DNA, nucleotide bonding forms a compound with a characteristic shape known as a(n)_____
when an atom donates an electron to another atom, it becomes_____
when an atom donates an electron to another atom, it becomes_____
on the periodic table of the elements, mercury (hg) has an atomic number of 80 and a mass of 200.59. it has seven stable isotopes. The most abundant of these probably have ____.
on the periodic table of the elements, mercury (hg) has an atomic number of 80 and a mass of 200.59. it has seven stable isotopes. The most abundant of these probably have ____.
A substance formed of crystals of equal numbers of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds is called a(n)_____
A substance formed of crystals of equal numbers of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds is called a(n)_____
the energy stored in a ball at the top of a hill is ____
the energy stored in a ball at the top of a hill is ____
The bonding of calcium, phosphorus, and other elements produces mineral crystals that are found in bone. This is an example of a(n) ________ reaction
The bonding of calcium, phosphorus, and other elements produces mineral crystals that are found in bone. This is an example of a(n) ________ reaction
Which of the following combinations of atoms is most likely to result in a chemical reaction?
Which of the following combinations of atoms is most likely to result in a chemical reaction?
Chewing a bite of bread mixes it with saliva and facilitates its chemical breakdown. This is most likely due to the fact that ________.
Chewing a bite of bread mixes it with saliva and facilitates its chemical breakdown. This is most likely due to the fact that ________.
Which term describes a compound consisting of more than two carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via glycosidic bonds?
Which term describes a compound consisting of more than two carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via glycosidic bonds?
muscles attach to bones by way of ____
muscles attach to bones by way of ____
muscles are covered with a layer of ____
muscles are covered with a layer of ____
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
what is the name of this structure?
what is the name of this structure?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
to what structure is this arrow pointing?
what is the name of these structures being show by the arrows?
what is the name of these structures being show by the arrows?
to what do these (calcium) bind to
to what do these (calcium) bind to
what is the name of this structure
what is the name of this structure
How many muscles are in the human body?
How many muscles are in the human body?
which of these is NOT one of the 5 major properties?
which of these is NOT one of the 5 major properties?
Enlarging of the muscle is referred to as?
Enlarging of the muscle is referred to as?
which of these is NOT one of the 5 types of movements?
which of these is NOT one of the 5 types of movements?
which one of these movements refers to moving "towards the body"?
which one of these movements refers to moving "towards the body"?
which one of these are NOT one of the three types of muscles?
which one of these are NOT one of the three types of muscles?
which one of these movements refers to moving "away from the body"?
which one of these movements refers to moving "away from the body"?
______attach a muscle to a bone.
______attach a muscle to a bone.
_______ attach a muscle to a muscle
_______ attach a muscle to a muscle
The characteristic that gives an element its distinctive properties is its number of ____
The characteristic that gives an element its distinctive properties is its number of ____
Nitrogen has an atomic number seven. How many electron shells does it likely have?
Nitrogen has an atomic number seven. How many electron shells does it likely have?
A molecule of ammonia contains one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen. These are linked with ________.
A molecule of ammonia contains one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen. These are linked with ________.
when an atom donates an electron to another atom, it becomes____
when an atom donates an electron to another atom, it becomes____
Which of the following statements about chemical bonds is true?
Which of the following statements about chemical bonds is true?
The energy stored in a foot of snow on a steep roof is ___
The energy stored in a foot of snow on a steep roof is ___
AB→A+B
AB→A+B is a general notation for a(n) ________ reaction.
AB→A+B AB→A+B is a general notation for a(n) ________ reaction.
________ reactions release energy.
________ reactions release energy.
CH4 is methane. This compound is ____
CH4 is methane. This compound is ____
Which of the following is most likely to be found evenly distributed in water in a homogeneous solution?
Which of the following is most likely to be found evenly distributed in water in a homogeneous solution?
Jenny mixes up a batch of pancake batter, then stirs in some chocolate chips. As she is waiting for the first few pancakes to cook, she notices the chocolate chips sinking to the bottom of the clear glass mixing bowl. The chocolate-chip batter is an example of a ________.
Jenny mixes up a batch of pancake batter, then stirs in some chocolate chips. As she is waiting for the first few pancakes to cook, she notices the chocolate chips sinking to the bottom of the clear glass mixing bowl. The chocolate-chip batter is an example of a ________.
A substance dissociates into K+ and Cl– in solution. The substance is a(n) ________.
A substance dissociates into K+ and Cl– in solution. The substance is a(n) ________.
Ty is three years old and as a result of a “stomach bug” has been vomiting for about 24 hours. His blood pH is 7.48. What does this mean?
Ty is three years old and as a result of a “stomach bug” has been vomiting for about 24 hours. His blood pH is 7.48. What does this mean?
C6H12O6 is the chemical formula for a ________.
C6H12O6 is the chemical formula for a ________.
What organic compound do brain cells primarily rely on for fuel?
What organic compound do brain cells primarily rely on for fuel?
A pentose sugar is a part of the monomer used to build which type of macromolecule?
A pentose sugar is a part of the monomer used to build which type of macromolecule?
A phospholipid___
A phospholipid___
Flashcards
Chemistry
Chemistry
The science that studies the structure of matter.
Matter
Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
Mass
Mass
The amount of material in matter.
Solids
Solids
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Liquids
Liquids
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Gases
Gases
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Elements
Elements
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Atoms
Atoms
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
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Nucleotide Components
Nucleotide Components
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Purines
Purines
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Pyrimidines
Pyrimidines
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DNA, RNA, ATP Functions
DNA, RNA, ATP Functions
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Proton (p+)
Proton (p+)
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Neutron (n0)
Neutron (n0)
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Electron (e-)
Electron (e-)
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Nucleus
Nucleus
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Electron Cloud
Electron Cloud
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Electron Shell
Electron Shell
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Valence Shell
Valence Shell
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Chemical Symbol
Chemical Symbol
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Atomic Number
Atomic Number
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Ion
Ion
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Cation
Cation
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Anion
Anion
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Mass Number
Mass Number
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Ionic Bond
Ionic Bond
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Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
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Compounds
Compounds
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Metabolism
Metabolism
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Energy
Energy
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Potential Energy
Potential Energy
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Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
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Decomposition Reaction
Decomposition Reaction
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Synthesis Reaction
Synthesis Reaction
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Exchange Reaction
Exchange Reaction
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Reversible Reactions
Reversible Reactions
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Enzymes
Enzymes
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Exergonic Reactions
Exergonic Reactions
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Endergonic Reactions
Endergonic Reactions
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Posses carbon and hydrogen as the primary structural ingredient
Posses carbon and hydrogen as the primary structural ingredient
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Lack carbon and hydrogen as the primary structural ingredient
Lack carbon and hydrogen as the primary structural ingredient
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Sucrose
Sucrose
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Maltose
Maltose
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Starch
Starch
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Glycogen
Glycogen
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Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids
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Saturated Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
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Glycerides
Glycerides
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Phospholipids
Phospholipids
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Steroids
Steroids
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Active Site
Active Site
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Denaturation
Denaturation
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Water as a Lubricant
Water as a Lubricant
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High Heat Capacity
High Heat Capacity
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Thermal Inertia
Thermal Inertia
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Polar Molecule
Polar Molecule
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Hydration Sphere
Hydration Sphere
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Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic
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Hydrophobic
Hydrophobic
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Electrolytes
Electrolytes
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Colloid
Colloid
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Acids
Acids
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Neutrals
Neutrals
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Buffers
Buffers
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Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
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Study Notes
- Chemistry studies the structure of matter.
- Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
- Mass is the amount of material in matter.
- Mass determines the weight of an object in Earth's gravitational field.
- Solids: maintain volume and shape, particles held tightly, high density.
- Liquids: maintain volume but not shape, particles loosely held, less dense than solids.
- Gases: no constant volume or shape, compressible, particles independent, least dense.
- Elements are substances composed of one or more types of atoms.
- There are 92 naturally occurring elements.
- Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up 96% of human body weight.
- The human body contains 11 principle elements.
- Trace elements, like copper and zinc, are in the human body in small amounts.
- Atoms are the smallest units of an element.
- Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Protons (p+): positive charge, high mass, low energy.
- Neutrons (n0): neutral charge, high mass, low energy.
- Electrons (e-): negative charge, low mass, high energy.
- An atom has a nucleus and an electron cloud.
- Nucleus: contains protons and neutrons, determines atom's mass.
- Electron cloud: electrons whirl around the nucleus.
- Electron shell: fixed orbit around the nucleus.
- Electrons occupy energy levels within the electron cloud.
- First electron shell (K): closest to the nucleus, max 2 electrons, lowest energy.
- Second electron shell (L): max 8 electrons, up to 10 total electrons (K+L).
- Third electron shell (M): max 8 electrons, up to 18 total electrons (K-M).
- Valence shell: the outermost electron shell.
- Number of electrons in the valence shell determines reactivity.
- An element consists of only one type of atom.
- Elements are listed in the periodic table.
- Chemical symbol: abbreviation for an element.
- Elements are listed in the periodic table according to atomic number.
- Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom.
- Neutral atoms have the same number of protons and electrons.
- Ions are charged atoms.
- Cations: positively charged atoms (loss of electrons).
- Anions: negatively charged atoms (gain of electrons).
- Mass number: total number of protons and neutrons.
- Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- Isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.
- Atomic weight: the actual mass of an atom, expressed in daltons (amu).
- Atomic weight is the average mass number reflecting isotope proportions.
Chemical Bonds
- Chemical bonds stabilize the outer energy levels of atoms.
- Atoms form bonds based on the number of electrons in their valence shell.
- Reactive atoms have unfilled outer shells and form bonds.
- Inert atoms have full outer shells and do not react.
- Ionic bonds: transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Creates ions.
- Cation and anion attract, forming an ionic bond.
- Common in inorganic compounds: acids, bases, and salts.
- Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons between neutral atoms.
- Usually associated with organic compounds: starch, proteins, lipids.
- Single covalent bond: one pair of electrons shared.
- Double covalent bond: two pairs of electrons shared.
- Polar covalent bonds: unequal sharing of electrons due to electronegativity.
- Nonpolar covalent bonds: equal sharing of electrons.
- Molecules: atoms of one or more elements held by covalent bonds.
- Compounds: atoms from two or more elements, any type of bond.
Chemical Reactions
- Cells control chemical reactions to remain alive and functional.
- Chemical reaction: new bonds form or existing bonds break.
- Reactants: reacting substances.
- Products: substances formed.
- Metabolism: all reactions in the body's cells and tissues.
- Work: movement of an object or change in physical structure.
- Energy: the capacity to perform work.
- Potential energy: stored energy.
- Kinetic energy: energy of movement.
- Chemical notation: a method of describing chemical reactions.
- Element symbol: indicates one atom of that element.
- Number before symbol: indicates multiple atoms.
- Subscript after symbol: indicates a molecule with that number of atoms.
- Reactants are on the left of the arrow, products are on the right.
- Superscript + or – sign: indicates an ion.
- Chemical reactions rearrange atoms, neither creating nor destroying them.
- Balanced equation: the numbers of atoms are the same on both sides.
- Decomposition reactions (catabolism): large molecules break down into smaller ones.
- Hydrolysis is a common decomposition reaction to break down organic compounds.
- Synthesis reactions (anabolism): smaller particles bond to form larger molecules.
- Dehydration synthesis builds complex organic molecules.
- Exchange reactions: parts of molecules are shuffled to produce new products.
- Chemical reactions can be reversible.
- Factors affecting chemical reactions: properties of reactants, temperature, concentration, pressure.
- Enzymes lower the activation energy requirements for chemical reactions.
- Exergonic reactions release energy.
- Endergonic reactions require energy.
- Enzymatic reactions process metabolites.
- Metabolites: molecules synthesized or broken down in the body.
- Nutrients are essential metabolites obtained from diet.
- Organic nutrients: possess carbon and hydrogen.
- Inorganic nutrients: lack carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic Compounds
- Water makes up two-thirds of body weight.
- The bodies water content is important.
- Water is the only substance existing as solid, liquid, and gas at compatible temperatures.
- Water is densest as a liquid.
- Water is held together by polar covalent bonds.
- Hydrogen bonds are weak attractive forces between polar molecules.
- Water molecules exhibit cohesion and adhesion.
- Surface tension is created by hydrogen bonds at the water surface.
- Surface tension acts as a barrier preventing objects from entering the water
- Water has the ability to dissolve compounds
- Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances.
- Solvent: the medium in which other substances are dispersed.
- Water is a universal solvent.
- Solutes: the dispersed particles.
- Water is an effective lubricant because there is little friction between water molecules
- Water participates in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.
- Heat capacity is the ability to absorb and retain heat.
- Water has a high heat capacity due to hydrogen bonding.
- Water carries a great deal of heat away when it changes from a liquid to a gas.
- Perspiration has a cooling effect on the skin.
- Thermal inertia: large mass of water changes temperature slowly.
- A water molecule is polar because it has a positive and negative pole.
- Ionic compounds dissociate in water.
- Hydration sphere: sheath of water molecules around an ion.
- Hydrophilic molecules interact readily with water.
- Hydrophobic molecules do not have poles and do not dissolve in water.
- Electrolytes: soluble inorganic molecules whose ions conduct electrical current in solution.
- Colloid: a solution containing dispersed proteins.
- Suspension: contains large particles that settle out of solution
pH Regulation
- Hydrogen ions are extremely reactive
- Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution (proton donors).
- Bases release hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution (proton acceptors).
- Neutrals release equal numbers of H+ and OH-.
- Acids have a low pH (1-6.9).
- Bases have a high pH (7.1-14).
- Neutrals have a pH of 7.0.
- Salts release cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-.
- Salts cannot be measured on the pH sale
- Buffers counter pH shifts by releasing or combining with hydrogen ions.
- Normal blood pH: 7.35 to 7.45.
- Acidosis: pH drops below 7.35.
- Alkalosis: pH rises above 7.45.
Organic Compounds
- Organic molecules possess carbon and are formed from covalent bonds.
- Four types of organic compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
- Organic compounds are polymers made from covalently bonded monomers.
- Dehydration synthesis: organic compounds are made by the removal of water molecules
- Hydrolysis: organic compounds are broken by the addition of water.
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.
- Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates (one sugar unit).
- Monosaccharides contain 3-7 carbon atoms.
- Monosaccharides are used to assemble larger carbohydrates.
- There are five possible monosaccharides: include glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and deoxyribose.
- Ribose and deoxyribose are not used to construct carbohydrates.
- Glucose, fructose, and galactose are isomers (same formula, different structure).
- Disaccharides: two sugar units.
- Lactose (glucose + galactose) is present in milk.
- Sucrose (glucose + fructose) is a plant transport of sugar
- Maltose (two glucose units) is present in germinating seeds.
- Polysaccharides are chains of hundreds/thousands of sugar monomers (complex carbohydrates).
- Starch: a plant storage form of energy.
- Glycogen: is a highly branched chain used by animals to store energy in muscles and liver.
Lipids
- Lipids are greasy or oily compounds
- Lipids are nonpolar (=hydrophobic).
- Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (not 1:2:1 ratio).
- Fatty acids: long carbon chains with hydrogen atoms.
- All fatty acids serve as energy sources and are absorbed from food or synthesized
- Carboxylic acid group (-COOH)
- The carbon chain attached to the head is the hydrocarbon chain.
- Saturated fatty acids: only single carbon-carbon bonds in their tail (solid at room temperature).
- Unsaturated fatty acids: one or more double bonds (liquid at room temperature).
- Glycerides: one or more fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol.
- Monoglycerides (one fatty acid + glycerol), Diglycerides (Diglycerides (two fatty acids + glycerol)), and Triglycerides (Glycerides (three fatty acids + glycerol)).
- Glycerides are stored in fat deposits.
- Glycerides can be used for insulation and physical protection.
- Phospholipids and glycolipids are formed by attachment of two fatty acids plus a phosphate group to a glycerol.
- Glycolipids are phospholipids with sugar groups attached to the head end.
- Phospholipids are the main structural material of plasma membranes.
- Steroids possess a backbone of four carbon rings but no fatty acid tails.
- Cholesterol is a component of plasma membranes in animal cells.
- Cholesterol can be modified to form sex hormones and vitamin D.
- Eicosanoids are lipids derived from arachidonic acid.
- Leukotrienes are produced by cells involved with coordinating the responses to injury or disease.
- Prostaglandins coordinate or direct local cellular activities
- Prostaglandins have short chain fatty acids in which five of the carbon atoms are joined in a ring.
Proteins
- Proteins are the most diverse of all biological compounds.
- All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
- Proteins are enzymes, for cell movements, storage, transport, hormones, antibodies, structural material.
- Amino acids are the monomer unit of a protein.
- Amino acids are organic molecules with a nitrogen group (amine) attached to a carboxyl group (acid) and an R group (remainder).
- A polymer of amino acids is a polypeptide.
- Peptide bonds form between the amino acids.
- Primary protein structure is the ordered sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
- There are 20 kinds of amino acids.
- Secondary protein structure results from hydrogen bonding of side groups on the amino acid chains.
- Tertiary structure is the result of folding due to interactions among R groups.
- Quaternary structure describes the twisting of two of more polypeptide chains.
- Hemoglobin is a typical globular protein.
- Keratin is a typical fibrous protein.
- Denaturation: changing the shape of a protein alters its function.
- Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts which accelerate the rate of biochemical reaction
- Enzymes lower start-up energy (activation energy).
- Enzymes have an active site, where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
- Substrate binding produces an enzyme-substrate complex.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous.
- The monomer unit of a nucleic acid is a nucleotide.
- Each nucleotide consists of three components: a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a Phosphate group.
- Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
- Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T- in DNA only), or Uracil (U - in RNA only).
- Complimentary base pairing occurs between one purine and one pyrimidine.
- Adenine always binds to Thymine (or uracil in the formation of RNA) with two hydrogen bonds.
- Cytosine always binds to Guanine with three hydrogen bonds.
- Three important nucleic acids: DNA, RNA, and ATP.
- DNA: double-stranded helix carrying encoded hereditary instructions.
- RNA: single-stranded, translates the code to build proteins.
- ATP: single nucleotide that contains three phosphate groups and can readily release the phosphates to release energy for the cell to perform work.
- The Sugar group in DNA has deoxyribose while RNA contains ribose.
- The nitrogenous bases in DNA contain a combination of A, C, G, and T while RNA contains a combination of A, C, G, and U.
- DNA contains more than 45 million nucleotides while RNA contains no more than 50,000 nucleotides.
- DNA is a double-stranded helix, and DNA strands are arranged anti-parallel while RNA is a single-stranded straight chain.
- DNA stores genetic information that controls protein while RNA performs protein synthesis as directed by DNA.
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