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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
Which area of study focuses on how meaning is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener?
Which area of study focuses on how meaning is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener?
- Syntax
- Morphology
- Pragmatics (correct)
- Semantics
Pragmatics is primarily concerned with the literal definitions of words rather than the implied meaning in context.
Pragmatics is primarily concerned with the literal definitions of words rather than the implied meaning in context.
False (B)
What is the study of contextual meaning in language known as?
What is the study of contextual meaning in language known as?
Pragmatics
____________ is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.
____________ is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.
Match the following linguistic areas with their descriptions:
Match the following linguistic areas with their descriptions:
Which of these best describes the role of regularity when learning a new language?
Which of these best describes the role of regularity when learning a new language?
A pragmatic error is always due to inaccurate vocabulary or incorrect pronunciation.
A pragmatic error is always due to inaccurate vocabulary or incorrect pronunciation.
In linguistics, what is the term to describe pointing via language?
In linguistics, what is the term to describe pointing via language?
The term ___________ refers to the 'pointing' function of language, where words directly relate to the speaker's context, such as 'this', 'here', and 'now'.
The term ___________ refers to the 'pointing' function of language, where words directly relate to the speaker's context, such as 'this', 'here', and 'now'.
Match the type of deixis with the correct examples:
Match the type of deixis with the correct examples:
In the context of deixis, what are expressions indicating higher social status called?
In the context of deixis, what are expressions indicating higher social status called?
In all languages, the choice between familiar and non-familiar forms of address is solely determined by the age of the speaker and addressee.
In all languages, the choice between familiar and non-familiar forms of address is solely determined by the age of the speaker and addressee.
What is the name to the phenomenon when speakers use spatial or temporal deixis to mentally project themselves into other locations or times?
What is the name to the phenomenon when speakers use spatial or temporal deixis to mentally project themselves into other locations or times?
In temporal deixis, the ________ tense is the proximal form, while the ________ tense is the distal form.
In temporal deixis, the ________ tense is the proximal form, while the ________ tense is the distal form.
Match each concept with its appropriate description, according to the chapter:
Match each concept with its appropriate description, according to the chapter:
What is described as an act in which a speaker uses linguistic forms to enable a listener to identify something?
What is described as an act in which a speaker uses linguistic forms to enable a listener to identify something?
Words themselves refer to objects and concepts.
Words themselves refer to objects and concepts.
When a listener infers the intended referent of an expression based on what a speaker says, what term refers to this process?
When a listener infers the intended referent of an expression based on what a speaker says, what term refers to this process?
The choice of a referring expression is based primarily on what the speaker assumes the ________ already knows.
The choice of a referring expression is based primarily on what the speaker assumes the ________ already knows.
Match the type of usage with the corresponding descriptions:
Match the type of usage with the corresponding descriptions:
Which of the following explains what allows listeners to understand newspaper headlines using names of countries.
Which of the following explains what allows listeners to understand newspaper headlines using names of countries.
Co-text refers exclusively to the physical setting of a referring expression.
Co-text refers exclusively to the physical setting of a referring expression.
What is the linguistic environment that helps to interpret reference known as?
What is the linguistic environment that helps to interpret reference known as?
The process of subsequent reference to an already introduced entity is generally known as __________ reference.
The process of subsequent reference to an already introduced entity is generally known as __________ reference.
Match the reference below with the appropiate term.
Match the reference below with the appropiate term.
What is it known as when there is no linguistic expression after needing to identify a person, but one is inferred?
What is it known as when there is no linguistic expression after needing to identify a person, but one is inferred?
Successful reference always depends on strictly literal or grammatically 'correct' relationships.
Successful reference always depends on strictly literal or grammatically 'correct' relationships.
What process is required to create connection due to depending on pragmatic processes, intention, and assumption of collaboration in communication?
What process is required to create connection due to depending on pragmatic processes, intention, and assumption of collaboration in communication?
A __________ is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance.
A __________ is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance.
Match the term with the following sentences.
Match the term with the following sentences.
Which property of presupposition is described by how a statement will remain true, even with the statement being negated?
Which property of presupposition is described by how a statement will remain true, even with the statement being negated?
Entailment is generally discussed by linguists as often as presupposition in contemporary pragmatics.
Entailment is generally discussed by linguists as often as presupposition in contemporary pragmatics.
What term is used when determining the fact with the speaker's assumptions in play in many expressions?
What term is used when determining the fact with the speaker's assumptions in play in many expressions?
The term associated with using a word that gives the interpretation that another meaning is understood is called __________ presupposition.
The term associated with using a word that gives the interpretation that another meaning is understood is called __________ presupposition.
Match the specific sentences with the types of presupposition that occur:
Match the specific sentences with the types of presupposition that occur:
In discussions of presupposition, what challenge do non-factive presuppositions cause?
In discussions of presupposition, what challenge do non-factive presuppositions cause?
Presuppositions always 'project,' meaning they always remain true in complex sentences.
Presuppositions always 'project,' meaning they always remain true in complex sentences.
Regarding semantics, what is meant for a the statement about there being an association between word and truth
Regarding semantics, what is meant for a the statement about there being an association between word and truth
According to how a speaker wants their words known, there are two ways to interpret the speaker's words and put stress which entails.
According to how a speaker wants their words known, there are two ways to interpret the speaker's words and put stress which entails.
Match the following term with the correct understanding to the conversation.
Match the following term with the correct understanding to the conversation.
Which of these following statements is part of the cooperative principle?
Which of these following statements is part of the cooperative principle?
Speakers have to explicitly state that they are adhering to conversational maxims.
Speakers have to explicitly state that they are adhering to conversational maxims.
What expression can speakers use to show that they may not have adhered correctly to conversation principles?
What expression can speakers use to show that they may not have adhered correctly to conversation principles?
A seemingly pointless expression such as answering something without evaluation is called __________.
A seemingly pointless expression such as answering something without evaluation is called __________.
Match with what comes next.
Match with what comes next.
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
Pragmatics
Pragmatics
The study of meaning as communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener.
Contextual Meaning
Contextual Meaning
The study of meaning in a particular context, and how that context influences the meaning.
Inference
Inference
The act of people making inferences to understand intended meanings.
Invisible Meaning
Invisible Meaning
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Relative Distance
Relative Distance
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Syntax
Syntax
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Semantics
Semantics
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Pragmatics
Pragmatics
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Regularity
Regularity
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Deixis
Deixis
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Deictic expression
Deictic expression
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Person deixis
Person deixis
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Spatial Deixis
Spatial Deixis
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Deictic Projection
Deictic Projection
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Temporal Deixis
Temporal Deixis
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The Direct & Indirect Connection
The Direct & Indirect Connection
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Reference
Reference
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Referring Expression
Referring Expression
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Attributive Use
Attributive Use
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Co-text
Co-text
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Context
Context
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Social act
Social act
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Anaphoric Reference
Anaphoric Reference
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What are pronouns & the first referring expressions in that sentence?
What are pronouns & the first referring expressions in that sentence?
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Cataphora
Cataphora
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Zero Anaphora (Ellipsis)
Zero Anaphora (Ellipsis)
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pragmatic process
pragmatic process
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key to making sense of reference
key to making sense of reference
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Presupposition
Presupposition
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Entailment
Entailment
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The symbol >>
The symbol >>
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Constancy under Negation
Constancy under Negation
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Existential Presupposition
Existential Presupposition
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Factive Presupposition
Factive Presupposition
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Lexical Presupposition
Lexical Presupposition
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Structural Presupposition
Structural Presupposition
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Not a Factive Presupposition
Not a Factive Presupposition
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Contradictory to Fact
Contradictory to Fact
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Projection problem
Projection problem
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cooperating
cooperating
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Implicature
Implicature
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Flashcards
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Study Notes
Study Notes
Pragmatics
- Pragmatics focuses on the study of meaning as it is communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader.
- It explores what people truly mean by their words rather than the literal definitions of the words themselves.
- Pragmatics deals with speaker meaning.
Contextual Meaning
- The field examines how context shapes the meaning and interpretation of utterances.
- Considers the influence of the audience, setting, timing, and circumstances on communication.
- Pragmatics deals with contextual meaning.
Inference
- Examines the inferences listeners make to understand a speaker's intended meaning, including unspoken elements.
- Pragmatics studies how more gets communicated than is said, focusing on what is implied but not explicitly stated.
- Pragmatics deals with invisible meaning.
Relative Distance
- Investigates how choices between what is said and unsaid are influenced by the perceived distance between speakers.
- Distance can be social, physical, or conceptual.
- Pragmatics studies the expression of relative distance.
Syntax
- Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms.
- It studies the arrangement of forms in sequence.
- Syntax determines which sequences are well-formed, generally without considering external references or users.
Semantics
- Semantics studies the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world.
- It focuses how words connect to real-world objects, and on the accuracy of verbal descriptions, irrespective of who provides them.
Pragmatics
- Pragmatics studies the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
- Allows for the analysis of intended meanings, assumptions, purposes, and actions performed through speech.
- Unlike syntax and semantics, it incorporates human elements into the analysis.
Limitations
- Concepts are difficult to analyze consistently and objectively.
- Speakers may imply meanings without explicit linguistic evidence.
- Requires understanding people and their intentions
Regularity
- Language use follows relatively consistent patterns derived from membership in social groups.
- Familiar social groups allow people to easily and appropriately say polite phrases.
- New social setting can cause linguistic uncertainty
Shared Knowledge
- Regularity stems from the fact that community members typically share experiences and knowledge.
- Shared knowledge reduces the need for excessive detail in communication.
- Assuming shared knowledge is important
Formal Systems
- There once was a strong focus on formal systems of analysis, derived largely from math and logic.
- Emphasis was on discovering abstract principles at the core of language.
- Linguists tended to set aside notes on everyday usage, creating a need to analyze these practical aspects separately.
Syntactic Perspective
- Concerned with the rules determining correct sentence structure.
- Excludes incorrect orderings.
- Less concerned wth ducks, dogs and intent
The Bottle
- A sentence like 'The bottle of ketchup ran up to Mary' is well-formed syntactically.
- It doesn't bother syntax that it is conceptually odd.
Semantic Perspective
- Semantics would focus on meaning features.
- A "duck" is (animate) while a 'bottle of ketchup' is (non-animate).
- The requirements something is "animate" impacts word choice.
Proposition
- Is concerned with truth conditions in sentences.
- Conventionally uses the letters p, q, and r to denote basic literal meanings.
- An example is that the proposition p & q should mean - 'I found an old bicycle. A bicycle has a chain. The chain was rusted'.
- Should denote sequences as well as what is or isn't true
Deixis and Distance
- "Pointing" via language is referred to as deixis.
- Linguistic forms used to accomplish "pointing" is a deictic expression.
- Includes person deixis, spatial deixis and temporal deixis
Face-to-Face Interaction
- Deictic expressions are easily understood by those present
- Can sometimes need a translation for someone not there
Proximal Terms
- 'Near speaker', or proximal terms, are 'this', 'here', 'now'
- Distal terms are 'away from speaker'
- Distal terms are 'that', 'there', 'then'
Deitic Center
- Proximal terms are typically interpreted in terms of the speaker's location.
- 'Now' refers to some point or period in time that has the time of the speaker's utterance at its center
Person Deixis
- Each person in a conversation shifts from being T to being 'you' constantly.
- This can cause confusion in early childhood development/use of tense
Social Status
- Deictic categories of speaker, addressee, and other(s) are elaborated with markers of relative social status.
- Expressions which indicate higher status are described as honorifics.
- The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimes described as social deixis.
T/V Distinction
- Social contrast encoded within person deixis.
- Refers to forms used for a familiar vs. a non-familiar addressee in many languages.
- Known as the T/V distinction from the French forms 'tu' (familiar) and 'vous' (non-familiar).
Third Person
- Related to a form which was used to refer to neither first person (speaker) nor second person (addressee), but to third person (some other)
- Not a direct participant in basic (I-you) interaction and, being an outsider, is necessarily more distant
Spatial Deixis
- Spatial deixis are being indicated where the relative location of people and things is
- Contemporary English makes use of only two adverbs, 'here' and 'there', for the basic distinction, but in older texts and in some dialects, a much larger set of deictic expressions can be found
Motion
- Some verbs of motion, such as 'come' and 'go', retain a deictic sense when they are used to mark movement toward the speaker ('Come to bed!') or away from the speaker ('Go to bed!')
Deictic Projection
- Location from the speaker's perspective can be fixed mentally as well as physically.
- Speakers temporarily away from their home location will often continue to use 'here' to mean the (physically distant) home location, as if they were still in that location.
- Speakers also seem to be able to project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in those locations, as when they say 'I'll come later' (= movement to addressee's location).
Temporal Deixis
- The use of the proximal form 'now' as indicating both the time coinciding with the speaker's utterance and the time of the speaker's voice being heard (the hearer's 'now').
- The distal expression 'then' applies to both past and future time relative to the speaker's present time.
Verb tense
- A basic type of temporal deixis in English is in the choice of verb tense.
- English has only two basic forms, the present and the past.
- The present tense is the proximal form and the past tense is the distal form.
Indirect speech
- Deictic expressions for person ('you'), place ('here'), and time ('this evening') can all be interpreted within the same context as the speaker who utters direct speech
Proximal
- Note that the proximal forms presented in direct speech have shifted to the corresponding distal forms in indirect speech.
- Marks a distinction between the 'near speaker' meaning of direct speech and the 'away from speaker' meaning of indirect speech.
Reference
- Words themselves don't refer to anything. People refer.
- It could be thought of as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.
- Those linguistic forms are referring expressions.
Referring Expressions
- Can be proper nouns (for example, 'Shakespeare', 'Cathy Revuelto', 'Hawaii')
- Can be noun phrases which are definite (for example, 'the author', 'the singer', 'the island')
- Can be indefinite (for example, 'a man', 'a woman', 'a beautiful place'), and pronouns (for example, 'he', 'her', 'it', 'them').
Successful Communication
- Must also recognize the role of inference.
- Listener's task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression.
Collaboration
- Involves both the speaker and the listener having a role in thinking about what the other has in mind.
- Reference is not based on an objectively correct naming, but on some locally successful choice of expression.
Attributive use
- Distinct from a referential use.
- 'who-ever/whatever fits the description'
- an be found with definite noun phrases
Names and Referents
- Reference begins with an intention-to-identify and a recognition-of-intention collaboration at work
- There is a convention that certain referring expressions will be used to identify certain entities on a regular basis
The role of co-text
- One's ability to identify intended referents has actually depended on more than one's understanding of the referring expression The physical environment, or context, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted
Reference is a Social Act
- The speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intended
Anaphoric Reference
- After the initial introduction of some entity, speakers will use various expressions to maintain reference
- Initial reference, or introductory mention, is often indefinite ('a man', 'a woman', 'a cat').
- Subsequent reference to already introduced referents is generally known as anaphoric reference, or anaphora.
Antecedent and Anaphor
- The second or subsequent expression is the anaphor and the initial expression is the antecedent.
- Is tempting to think of anaphoric reference as a process of continuing to identify exactly the same entity as denoted by the antecedent
The antecedent
- Can be used to refer to the six peeled and sliced potatoes from 'peel and slice six potatoes'.
- Must be interpreted differently is you do that
Pre suppostition
- Is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance
- speakers have presuppositions
- Entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance
- sentences have entailments
Potentially assumed
- speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions that a person called Mary exists and that she has a brother
Potential Presuppositions
- These linguistics forms can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers
- Is associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures
The Projection Problem
- Basic expectation that the presupposition of a simple sentence will continue to be true when that simple sentence becomes part of a more complex sentence
- Known as the projection problem
Indicators
- Types of expressions, in tabular form, that are known to act as indicators to the process of presupposition/assertion
Destroyed by Entailments
- A simple explanation for the fact that presuppositions don't 'project' is that they are destroyed by entailments
- An entailment is a necessary consequence of what is said
Cancel Existential Presuppositions
- Power of entailment can also be used to cancel existential presuppositions.
- Is best to think of all the types of presuppositions as 'potential presuppositions' which only become actual presuppositions when intended by speakers to be recognized as such within utterances.
Potential
- Potential presupposition is not being presented as a strong assumption
- Only speakers that can have presuppositions
Enatilment
- Is the process of being necessarily committed to the truth of a very large number of background entailments
- Speaker will indicate how these entailments are to be ordered
- speaker will communicate, typically by stress, which entailment is assumed to be in the foreground, or more important for interpreting intended meaning, than any others
Cooperation and Implicature
- Speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other.
- This cooperative sense is the starting point for making sense of what is said.
Additional Conveyed Meaning
- This should be the something is which much be more than just what the words mean
- In this sense, the speaker expects that the listener will be able to work out the implicature intended in this context.
The cooperative principle
- In most circumstances, the assumption of cooperation is so pervasive that it can be stated as a cooperative principle of conversation and elaborated in four sub-principles, called maxims
Quantity
-
- Make your contribution as informative as is required.
-
- Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
- I 1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
-
- Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation and Manner
- Relation Be relevant. Manner Be perspicuous
- Avoid obscurity of expression.
- Avoid ambiguity.
- Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) -Be orderly
The maxims
- It is important to recognize these maxims as unstated assumptions we have in conversations
Hedges
- Are expressions used to mark that speakers may be in danger of not fully adhering to cooperative principles.
- Are indications that speakers are aware of the maxims and want to show they are trying to observe them.
Conversational Implicature
- The basic assumption in conversation is that, unless otherwise indicated, the participants are adhering to the cooperative principle and the maxims
General Process
- Will take place if you want Bella (= b) and Cathy (= c) invited to a party with a simple positive or negative implication: Doobie: Did you invite Bella and Cathy? Mary: I invited Bella.
Generalized conversational implicature
- A common example in English involves any phrase with an indefinite article of the type 'a/an X', such as 'a garden' and 'a child'
- This means that the: an X implies not speaker's X.
Scalar implicature
- Certain information is always communicated by choosing a word which expresses one value from a scale of values
- Negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated
Particularized conversational implicatures
- Occur when conversations take place in very specific contexts
- Locally expected inferences are assumed
Lack of Adherence
- Example is an apparent lack of relevance because most people ask if something is the case right away, rather than make references to parents
- Also, at risk of flouting because the other person may in fact like ice ream
Deniable
- Because these implicatures are part of what is communicated and not said, speakers can always deny that they intended to communicate such meanings
- This is a general property to consider
Conventional Implicature
- Words like "but" are often conventionaly implicative
- Can have varied interpretations in different languages
Speech Acts
- In attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances
- They depend on the circumstances, you might utter X on the assumption that the hearer will recognize Y
Three Related Acts
- Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression
- illocutionary act Is performed via the communicative force of an utterance
- the perlocutionary act.Is a result due to the hearer's recognition
How Speakers Can Assume
- the Illocutionary Force Indicating Device, or IFID) is an expression of the type shown in X
- can often lead the receiver to be performing verb acts
Conditions For a Response
- There has to be certain conventions in light of the intended use
- For example, promises, need a desire or intended results to be properly used
Performative Hypothesis
- Is used to assume that, underlying every utterance Y there is a clause, similar to Y_a, containing the preformative verb X
- X.Y
- B: I hereby agree that I will not steal, as in this example regarding theft
Types
- Certain kinds of speech acts change the world vis their utterance.
- A speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context
- Declaration is one such type
Representative acts
- Are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not
Expressive
- Are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels state psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, lies, dislikes, joy, or sorrow
Directives (speech acts)
- Used by speakers to get someone else to do something
- Express what the speaker wants
- can be positive or negative
Commissives
- Are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action
- Express what the speaker intends
- Can be performed on their lonesome
Interrogate Form (type of speech act)
- Is declarative
- Has declarative use
- functions as direct speech acts
Indirect (Speech act)
- Only the imperative strucutre in H reps direct speech act
- The interlocutive structure is not being used only as question hence it is an indirect speech act
Conversation
- Consists of a two, or more, participants taking turns
- Is valued by smooth transitions
- Long silences can be troublesome
Silences
- Short pauses (marked with a dash) are simply the hestitations
- longer pauses can be interpreted as silences
- When a speaker that is afforded a pause that leads to not talking or contributing, it is attributed as that parties fault because silences are generally awkward
Implication
- When the speaker that is having a pause implies something negative it can be related to the non response of the other party
Distinctions
- Some find over lapping of talk to be solidarity while in other cases it can be interpreted as competitive
TRP
- Each potential speaker is expected to wait until the current speaker reaches TRP
- Is based on that one should be allowed to finish, or there would be some issues
Lack
- When people will like and um before and after a sentence it means that are having trouble continuing or that there might an issue about to arise in the conversation
Long Windedness
- Those who begin points by indicating X amount the are planning to say can come off as pretentious and can kill the fun of the conversation
Indicate Listening
- People give of body actions to indicate the active listening
- It can include head nods, and slight verbal ques or approval
Interpret Speaker
- A way with which the other person, when they have come to certain level of knowing, can be attributed or interpreted to understand the tone etc
Common Structure
- Is helped by the fact that that are automatic pattersns and conversations ex: hello -> hi
- And when these structures are there if a pause there can be negative intent
What For
- For action from the participant
- Can from new information
- These requests can often cause anxiety
How to Do It
- Because everything is linear there does have to be an agreement that is made
- However, because the act is a matter in a sequence it cannot alway be immediate and a result is need
Delayer Action
- That which marks what is need to be the act- In what is said before needs some from it to happen
- Generally speaking , when participants have to produce second part responses . they can not say something that is marked
Distance (Conversation)
- It requires and entails more use and more effort of politeness and respect
Conversation
- Can be found thoughout to to create connections
- Does this at the cost of good action with words
Social
- Where as conversation has it is root from Social is needed to to get though actions and understand
Not Simple
- In an interaction we must be sensitive to all aspects A number that make connections Everything a part and has some effects And need for be considered
In Order
- Each element has a great connection for certain points by a lot it However , there is more if one is to learn to certain aspects to make some acts
Focus and Language
- However, it is certain is we are given what is there for all to see For example the power to have what all see And will need to find in what way is a well-
Said Structure
- The emphasis has being set in to the way that there are certain
- That had has had, that being of that one there or there there or
- However, that this is the start does in fact the some said
- In fact , what has in it has been set,
- There where in can set up what to find
General Thought
However, in what every set, is from the one the has with what to say Therefore the main point of all can set into something all to see and say
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