Political Geography: Territoriality and Sovereignty

• Political geography explores how humans organize and manage territories on Earth.
• It examines political systems' spatial characteristics, from local to global levels.

Territoriality

• Territoriality involves the use of space to communicate ownership or occupancy.
• It encompasses the act of claiming and defending a specific area.
• Robert Sack defined human territoriality as a strategy to influence actions by asserting control over a geographic area.
• Territoriality can be established through physical markers like fences, symbolic markers like signs, or legal documentation such as deeds.
• Conflicts may arise from territoriality when different groups lay claim to the same area.

Sovereignty

• Sovereignty means a government has complete control over its territory, including legal authority and governance rights.
• It guarantees a government's independence from external interference.
• Sovereignty is a fundamental characteristic of statehood within the modern international system.
• Supranational organizations, internal conflicts, and globalization can challenge sovereignty.

States

• A state needs to be a politically organized territory, have a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the ability to engage with other states.
• States are the primary actors in international relations.
• Recognition of a state by other states is often a political decision.

Nations

• A nation is a group sharing cultural ties, ethnicity, language, religion, or historical background.
• Nations may or may not have their own state.
• A nation-state is a state where the territory aligns with a particular ethnicity that has become a nationality.
• Examples of nation-states include Japan, Iceland, and Portugal.

Stateless Nations

• Stateless nations are cultural groups without their own independent political entity.
• Examples include Kurds, Palestinians, and Basques.
• These nations often pursue self-determination.

Multinational States

• Multinational states contain multiple nations within a single state.
• Examples include Russia and Canada.
• Managing relations among different national groups presents challenges for these states.

Multistate Nations

• Multistate nations are those whose territory spans multiple state borders.
• Examples include Koreans (North and South Korea) and Germans (Germany, Austria, Switzerland).
• These nations may pursue unification or closer cooperation across borders.

Autonomous Regions

• Autonomous regions possess a degree of self-government within a state.
• The level of autonomy can vary significantly.
• Examples include Native American reservations in the United States and Åland Islands in Finland.
• Autonomy is often granted to protect cultural or linguistic distinctiveness.

Semi-Autonomous Regions

• Semi-autonomous regions have a moderate degree of self-government.
• They typically have some control over local affairs but are still subject to the laws and authority of the central government.
• Examples include Catalonia in Spain and Zanzibar in Tanzania.

Boundaries

• Boundaries define the territorial limits of a state.
• They can be physical (rivers, mountains) or cultural (language, religion).
• Geometric boundaries are based on straight lines or coordinates.
• Boundaries can be sources of conflict.

Types of Boundaries

• Physical boundaries are natural features separating political entities.
• Cultural boundaries separate groups based on cultural traits.
• Geometric boundaries are defined by straight lines or arcs, irrespective of physical or cultural features.
• Antecedent boundaries are established before an area is populated.
• Subsequent boundaries evolve with the cultural landscape.
• Superimposed boundaries are forced upon existing cultural landscapes by colonizers or conquerors.
• Relict boundaries no longer function as borders but still impact the landscape.

Boundary Disputes

• Definitional boundary disputes focus on the legal interpretation of boundary agreements.
• Locational boundary disputes arise when the actual demarcation of a boundary is contested.
• Operational boundary disputes involve disagreements over how a boundary should function.
• Allocational boundary disputes concern the rights to natural resources located along or near a boundary.

Geopolitical Theories

• Geopolitics studies the effects of geography on politics and international relations.
• Heartland Theory, proposed by Halford Mackinder, suggests that control of Eurasia (the "Heartland") is key to world domination.
• Rimland Theory, proposed by Nicholas Spykman, argues that control of the coastal areas (the "Rimland") of Eurasia is more crucial.

Nationalism

• Nationalism is a feeling of loyalty to and pride in one's nation or ethnic group.
• It can be a unifying or divisive force.
• Centripetal forces promote unity and stability within a state.
• Centrifugal forces disrupt internal order and destabilize a state.

Unifying Forces (Centripetal)

• Nationalism fosters shared identity and loyalty.
• A strong national identity promotes unity.
• Effective leadership can unite diverse groups.
• A common culture reduces internal divisions.
• A stable economy reduces discontent.
• A shared infrastructure (transportation, communication) promotes integration.
• A unifying external threat strengthens cohesion.

Dividing Forces (Centrifugal)

• Regionalism can undermine national unity.
• A weak economy breeds discontent.
• Internal conflict disrupts stability.
• Ethnic or cultural diversity can lead to division.
• Political instability weakens central authority.
• Unequal development fosters resentment.

Forms of Governance

• Unitary states concentrate power in a central government.
• Federal states distribute power between a central government and regional governments.
• Confederal states have weak central authority with power residing in regional entities.

Electoral Geography

• Electoral geography studies how spatial patterns influence voting behavior and election outcomes.
• Gerrymandering involves drawing electoral district boundaries to favor a particular party or group.
• Majority-minority districts are created to give minority groups a better chance of electing representatives.

Geopolitical Conflicts

• Geopolitical conflicts arise from competition for territory, resources, influence, or power.
• These conflicts can occur at various scales, from local to global.
• They often involve multiple actors with conflicting interests.

Types of Geopolitical Conflicts

• Ethnic conflicts stem from tensions between different ethnic groups.
• Religious conflicts arise from disputes between different religious groups.
• Territorial disputes involve disagreements over land ownership.
• Resource conflicts occur over access to valuable resources.
• Ideological conflicts stem from clashes of political or economic systems.

Terrorism

• Terrorism involves the use of violence against civilians to achieve political goals.
• It is often used by non-state actors to challenge state authority.
• Terrorism can be domestic or international.
• Counterterrorism efforts aim to prevent and respond to terrorist attacks.

Supranational Organizations

• Supranational organizations involve multiple states working together for common purposes.
• These organizations can be global, regional, economic, or political.
• Member states pool sovereignty to achieve shared goals.

Examples of Supranational Organizations

• The United Nations (UN) promotes international cooperation and peace.
• The European Union (EU) promotes economic and political integration in Europe.
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance for collective defense.
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) promotes free trade.
• The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) promotes economic and political cooperation in Southeast Asia.
• The African Union (AU) promotes unity and development in Africa.

Devolution

• Devolution is the transfer of power from a central government to regional or local governments.
• It can be a response to centrifugal forces.
• Devolution can lead to greater autonomy or even independence.
• Examples include the creation of regional parliaments in the United Kingdom and the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

Effects of Devolution

• Increased regional autonomy helps accommodate regional differences.
• Separatist movements can lead to the creation of new states.
• Political instability may increase during the devolution process.
• Economic disparities can widen if some regions are better equipped to manage their affairs than others.