Neuroscience Chapter Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of excitatory neurotransmitters in the nervous system?

To cause depolarization of neurons (correct)

To inhibit neuronal firing

To block neurotransmitter release

To enhance neuronal firing (correct)

What is a potential effect of inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin?

Enhanced synaptic plasticity

Increased metabolization of serotonin

Decreased mood regulation

Increased serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft (correct)

What is the significance of neural plasticity in learning?

It decreases the brain's ability to adapt over time.

It allows for the static structure of neurons to remain unchanged.

It prevents the formation of new neural connections.

It enables synaptic connections to strengthen or weaken based on experience. (correct)

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the reward system?

Dopamine Signup and view all the answers

What effect does exercise have on opioid receptors in the brain?

It activates opioid receptors leading to a feeling of euphoria. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of sensory receptors?

Detect environmental stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of mechanoreceptor?

Photoreceptors Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by damage to peripheral nerves and can cause sensory symptoms such as numbness?

Peripheral Neuropathy Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment approach is least likely to be effective for Vitamin deficiency-related peripheral neuropathy?

Surgery Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of carpal tunnel syndrome?

Numbness in the hand Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT a common cause of peripheral neuropathy?

High cholesterol Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of proprioceptors in the body?

Sense body position and movement Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended treatment for managing symptoms of type 2 diabetes-related peripheral neuropathy?

Weight management and lifestyle changes Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brainstem is responsible for processing auditory and visual information?

The Midbrain Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the Olfactory Nerve (CN I)?

To convey smell sensations Signup and view all the answers

Which cranial nerve is associated with Bell's Palsy?

Facial Nerve (CN VII) Signup and view all the answers

Which cranial nerve is primarily responsible for transmitting auditory information?

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the Vagus Nerve (CN X)?

To regulate autonomic functions Signup and view all the answers

Which cranial nerve is involved in the motor control of eye muscles?

Trochlear Nerve (CN IV) Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in the brainstem is responsible for relaying signals between the cerebellum and the cerebrum?

The Pons Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the sympathetic division is incorrect?

It decreases heart rate during stressful situations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of learned reflexes compared to innate reflexes?

They are acquired through experience and repetition. Signup and view all the answers

What is the physiological effect known as 'nose blindness'?

A temporary loss of the sense of smell due to prolonged exposure to an odor. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for innate reflexes?

Central Nervous System Signup and view all the answers

What type of reflex involves a person learning to respond to a specific stimulus over time?

Conditioned reflex Signup and view all the answers

Which basic tastes are typically identified as part of gustation?

Sour, Salty, Sweet, Umami Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of innate reflexes?

They require practice to develop. Signup and view all the answers

What role do the cochlea and the spiral organ (organ of Corti) play in hearing?

They convert sound waves into electrical signals for the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is NOT part of the auditory system?

Cornia of the Eye Signup and view all the answers

What is a common example of a learned reflex?

Typing on a keyboard. Signup and view all the answers

Which situation best describes an innate reflex?

A baby grasping a finger placed in their hand. Signup and view all the answers

How are taste chemicals detected by gustatory sensory cells?

Through receptors that bind and respond to specific chemical compounds. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reflex is typically evaluated in neurological examinations to assess brain function?

Spinal reflex Signup and view all the answers

What physiological mechanism allows learned reflexes to develop?

Synaptic plasticity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between innate and learned reflexes?

Learned reflexes do not occur automatically. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in the brain is involved in the processing of learned reflexes?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily affected by sympathetic nervous system activity during a stress response?

Heart rate Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following glands is stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system?

Salivary glands Signup and view all the answers

How does the sympathetic nervous system influence pupil size?

Causes dilation Signup and view all the answers

What effect does epinephrine have on the respiratory system?

Enhances bronchodilation Signup and view all the answers

Which of these describes the function of sympathomimetic drugs?

They stimulate the sympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the ciliary muscle in the eye?

Adjust the shape of the lens Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by increased tear production by the parasympathetic nervous system?

Allergic reaction Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells react to epinephrine during a stress response?

Adrenergic receptors Signup and view all the answers

In which situation would bronchodilation be particularly beneficial?

During exercise Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely outcome when the parasympathetic nervous system is activated?

Increased salivary secretion Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological process is primarily regulated by the sympathetic nervous system?

Fight or flight response Signup and view all the answers

How does norepinephrine influence blood vessels?

Causes constriction of blood vessels Signup and view all the answers

What system promotes energy conservation in the body?

Parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect of chronic sympathetic activation?

Lowered immune function Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nervous Tissue Lecture 1 Notes

Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system.
CNS refers to the Central Nervous System, which includes the brain and spinal cord.
PNS refers to the Peripheral Nervous System, encompassing all other nerves branching from the CNS to the body.

Nervous System Functions

Sensation (input): detecting stimuli from the internal or external environment.
Integration (processing): interpreting and organizing sensory information.
Response (output): initiating reactions to stimuli.

Sensation & Receptors

Receptors detect stimuli (changes in the internal or external environment).
Receptors are located in organs and tissues (cell or tissue receptors).
Receptor sites are proteins.

Integration

Interneurons receive sensory signals, interpret them, and compare them with current and past situations.
Interneurons can send signals for responses/effects if needed.

Response (Motor Activity)

Sensory or integrative signals can activate effectors (muscles and glands).
Effectors produce responses that impact internal or external environments.

Afferent & Efferent

Afferent signals are sensory signals traveling toward the CNS.
Efferent signals are motor signals exiting the CNS, traveling toward effectors (muscles and glands).

Types of Neurons

Multipolar neurons
Bipolar neurons
Pseudounipolar Neurons
Anaxonic Neurons

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Transmit impulses towards the CNS.
Usually (pseudo) unipolar.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Transmit impulses from the CNS to the rest of the body.
Usually multipolar.

Neuroglia

Support cells/glial cells that don't transmit electrochemical signals
Essential supportive role in the brain
Outnumber neurons (10:1 ratio).

Astrocytes

Most abundant glial cell
Form the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Microglia

Specialized macrophages/phagocytes
Protect against invaders
Dispose of pathogens, debris, & waste

Ependymal Cells

Line cavities in the CNS
Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Oligodendrocytes

Support and wrap CNS neurons with myelin

Satellite Cells

Surround and protect cell bodies of PNS neurons

Schwann Cells

Wrap axons in layers of myelin (PNS)

Neuronal Replacement

About 1.75% of neurons turn over each year in humans.

Neuroregeneration

Specific areas of the brain produce new neurons.
Locations include the olfactory bulb, and subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus, and the subventricular zone (SVZ) in lateral ventricles.
In some cases, axons may regenerate after injury.

Synapses

A typical synapse has Presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane, postsynaptic cell.
In chemical synapses, neurotransmitters are involved during signal transmission.
Electrical synapses involve gap junctions and are faster than chemical synapses.

Ion Concentration Gradients

Extracellular fluid has different ion concentrations than the cytosol
Ions will disperse into the fluid to equalize the concentration gradient.

Ion Channels

Leak, ligand-gated, mechanically-gated, voltage-gated, and temperature-gated
These channels play a crucial role in regulating ion flow, resulting in electrical signal transmission.

Membrane Potential

Difference in electrical potential between the inside and outside of a cell.
Resting membrane potential of a neuron is -70 mV.

Action Potential Stages

Resting state
Stimulus applied
Voltage rises
Voltage falls
End of action potential
Return to rest

Neurotransmitter Inactivation

Enzymatic breakdown
Diffusion away from the synapse
Reuptake into the presynaptic neuron.

Electrical Synapses

Direct link via gap junctions
Action potential propagates quickly.

Summation of Neurotransmitter Input

Temporal summation (timing & frequency).
Spatial summation (involving multiple factors, such as location)

Neuronal Pools

Divergence - spreading stimulation to multiple neurons or pools in the CNS.
Convergence - providing input to a single neuron or pool from multiple sources.
Serial processing - processing information sequentially, like a chain reaction.
Parallel processing- multiple pools process the same information simultaneously.

Synaptic Plasticity & Learning

Synapse formation associated with learning
Formation/strengthening of synapses to enhance memories.

Neural Plasticity & Learning

The capacity of the nervous system to alter neural networks and adapt to changes over different parts of life-time.
Synapse formation is associated with learning.

Potentiation

Strengthening of a synaptic signal.
Important in Learning and memory.

Neurotransmitters & Action Potentials

Excitatory neurotransmitters
Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Makes postsynaptic cells more likely to fire action potentials
Make membrane potential more positive

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Makes postsynaptic cells less likely to fire action potentials
Make membrane potential more negative

Seizures

Uncontrolled signals leading to disrupted thought patterns and convulsions
Often caused by glutamate/GABA imbalances.
Result in sudden, uncontrolled electrical activity in the brain, producing symptoms like loss of awareness/control.

Benzodiazepines

Drug class that enhances GABA effects
Treatment for seizure disorders, anxiety, and sleep disorders
Can be sedative and hypnotic in high doses

Serotonin

Affects mood and appetite
Used in treating depressive disorders.
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) prolong the presence of serotonin in synaptic gaps to treat depressive and other mental disorders.

Dopamine

Affects emotion, attention, pleasure, reward-seeking, and learning
Involved in a variety of behaviors, including reward, motivation, and movement coordination

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Affects arousal, attention, and increased cognitive function
Involved in "fight or flight" response and other systemic effects

Cocaine

A stimulant that blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin leading to neurotransmitter accumulation in the synaptic cleft.

Bupropion

Norephinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor
Used for smoking cessation, major depressive disorders, and seasonal affective disorder

Neuropeptides

Include opioid peptides (endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins, and endomorphins)
Diverse group of molecules with effects on neural activity including pain/stress relief

Endorphins & Opioid Receptors

Class of endogenous opioid peptides.
Provide analgesia, reduce stress, and increase mood/reward by increasing dopamine release.

Exercise-Induced Euphoria

Exercise increases endorphin release, which may reduce anxiety
May also be involved in runners high sensation

Sensory Receptors

Detect environmental changes (stimuli)
Sensory receptor cells, often neurons
Cellular receptors (proteins), found on cells.

The Five Senses

Vision
Audition
Gustation
Olfaction
Somatosensation
Somatosensation includes proprioception, touch, pressure, temperature, pain & vibration

Sensory Receptor Cells & Receptor Proteins

Sensory receptor cells have receptor proteins designed to pick up stimuli.
Stimulus → Cell Receptor → Sensory Cell.

Types of Sensory Receptors:

Nociceptors (painful stimuli): detect pain.
Thermoreceptors (temperature): detect temperature.
Chemoreceptors (chemical concentrations): detect chemical changes in the environment (eg., pH, O2, CO2).
Osmoreceptors (osmotic pressure): detect osmotic pressures.
Mechanoreceptors (stretch/distortions): detect stretch and distortion.
Tactile receptors (touch): detect tactile stimulation of the skin
Baroreceptors detect pressure changes
Proprioceptors (body position): detect body position and movement.

Free Nerve Endings

Detect touch
Detect temperature

Root Hair Plexuses

Mechanoreceptor neurons wrapped around hair follicles.
Detect hair movement.

Tactile Discs (Merkel Cells)

Oval-shaped discs reaching into the basal stratum.
Detect position, deep touch, and pressure.

Tactile Corpuscles (Meissner's Corpuscles)

Located in dermal papillae
Detect light touch and vibration

Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscles

Located in deep dermis
Detect pressure and vibration

Bulbous (Ruffini) Corpuscles

Located deep in the dermis
Detect stretch

General Sense Receptors

Exteroceptors—detect external stimuli
Interoceptors—detect internal stimuli
Proprioceptors—detect body position and movement

Types of Proprioceptors

Muscle spindles
Golgi tendon organs
Joint receptors

Spinal Cord Regions

8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
These are numbers of spinal nerves
These 8, 12, 5, 5, 1 are nerves, not vertebral bones.

Peripheral Nerve & Skeletal Muscle Structure

Epineurium - surrounds the entire nerve (outermost layer)
Perineurium - surrounds bundles of axons called fascicles (middle layer)
Endoneurium - surrounds individual axons (inner layer).
Epimysium - A sheath of fibrous connective tissue that encases the entire muscle.
Perimysium - Connective tissue that separates and surrounds individual bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles.
Endomysium - A wispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber.

Innervation

Distribution of nerve supply to a body region.

Spinal Nerves

Mixed nerves (both sensory and motor fibers).
C1 nerve is mostly motor fibers (with few afferent fibers).

Dermatomes

Areas of skin innervated by specific spinal nerves.
Important for nerve damage diagnosis and assessment of symptoms.

Somatosensation Tests

Evaluated using dermatomes to assess the spinal cord and brain damage. Unequal or decreased sensation suggests damage to the nerves.

Peripheral Neuropathy - Causes

Peripheral neuropathy - conditions resulting from damage to the peripheral nerves
Trauma, infection, vitamin deficiency, and alcohol use are potential causes.

Peripheral Neuropathy - Symptoms

Sensory symptoms: numbness, tingling; sharp, throbbing, burning pain
Motor symptoms: Muscle weakness, paralysis, lack of coordination, and falling.

Peripheral Neuropathy - Diagnosis

Nerve conduction test - asses neuromuscular conduction. Electrodiagnostic testing (EMG) or electromyography - Measures electrical activity in muscles.

Peripheral Neuropathy - Tx

Depends on the cause of injury, infection, or conditions, and some supportive measures such as pain management, physical therapy, and medication adjustments can be used.

Leprosy

Infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae bacteria.
Can take years for clinical symptoms to emerge.
Often leads to peripheral neuropathy with sensory loss and nerve damage

Shingles

Viral disease caused by the varicella zoster virus, the same virus that causes chicken pox.
The virus can become dormant in the nerves after the primary infection.
Triggers pain and rashes

Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Interconnected networks of spinal nerves. Includes cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
Important for distributing sensory information and controlling motor function.

Nerve Lesions

Damage to nerves by injury or disease.

Erb's Palsy

Injury to the brachial plexus nerves (C5-C6).
Often due to difficult labor, leading to arm weakness and atrophy

Neurogenic Atrophy

Muscle atrophy due to peripheral nerve damage

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome - Symptoms

Paresthesia (numbness, tingling)
Pain affecting thumb, index, and middle fingers.
Loss of grip strength
Median nerve impingement in the carpal tunnel (wrist).
Diagnosis involves nerve conduction tests, physical exam, Tinel's sign and Phalen maneuver to confirm suspected nerve compression in carpal tunnel.

Sciatic Nerve

Radiating pain along the sciatic nerve, often caused by nerve compression, such as herniated discs or piriformis syndrome, often one side.

Sciatica - Tx

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Corticosteroid injections
Physical Therapy
Lifestyle adjustments (including spinal and core muscle exercises, and chiropractic alignment)

Spinal Reflexes

Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli
Ipsilateral (same side) and contralateral (opposite side) reflexes
Examples include withdrawal and crossed-extensor reflexes.
Babinski sign (assessment of neurological function): Positive sign in infants, but abnormal in adults.

Central Nervous System Lecture 6 Notes

Spina bifida - Birth defect.
Incomplete closure of the neural tube during fetal development.
Risk factors include folate deficiency.
Conus medullaris and Cauda equina.
Important structures at the lower end of the spinal cord.
Filum terminale

Spinal Cord Sections

Sulcus and fissure structures
Structures in the cross section, including the posterior median sulcus, anterior median fissure; posterior and anterior white columns, gray horns/commissures

Organization of the Spinal Cord

White columns in the posterior and anterior portions (containing mostly myelinated axons, while gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies) and the spinal cord's commissures (connects the left and right halves of gray matter).

Meninges

Pia mater, Arachnoid mater and Dura mater
Protection envelopes the brain and spinal cord, separated by spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges
Caused by various pathogens
CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool

Ependymal Cells & Choroid Plexus

Ependymal cells line the brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal.
Choroid plexus - network of specialized ependymal cells.
Produces CSF

Ventricular System of the Brain

Parts and pathways within the ventricular system. Includes four ventricles; two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricular cavities.

The Cerebrum

What makes humans intelligent? Parts and functions of the cerebrum. Includes functions such as complex thinking, sensory processing, movement initiation, and formation of emotions, memories, and personality.

Brain Gray & White Matter

Gray matter - dendrites & cell bodies
White matter - axons with myelin

The Cerebral Cortex

Folded gray matter
Site of complex thought patterns, consciousness, language, and cognition.
Cortical regions involved in different functions such as attention, decisions, or language.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Measures patterns of electrical activity in the brain
Useful for diagnosing & monitoring of different neurological problems, including brain-wave patterns associated with different states, such as relaxed wakefulness or deep sleep, or abnormal patterns associated with seizures.

Brain Waves

Patterns of electrical activity in the brain

Brain Imaging Techniques

CT Scan, PET, MRI, and fMRI

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Measures brain activity in response to changes in blood oxygenation
Measures localized brain region activity when the patient performs specific tasks or to examine the brain's reaction to a specific stimulus
Reveals functional areas in the brain

Brain Lateralization & Dominance

Specific cognitive functions are performed or lateralized by one side of the brain.
fMRI not useful in identifying the dominance of a hemisphere.

Lobes of the Brain: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital

Each lobe deals with specific functions.

Lobotomy

Neurological procedure.
Historically used to treat mental disorders.
Involves severing neural connections in the frontal lobe

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

Repeated concussions.
Frontal & temporal lobe atrophy and ventricle enlargement, common signs with other neurodegenerative diseases.

The Limbic System

Regulates and assists functions like emotion, learning, memory, motivation and social info processing
Includes Structures like Amygdala, Hippocampus, Parahippocampal gyrus
Processes sensory input, consolidates info, forms memories.

Alzheimer's Disease

Hippocampus is one of the first areas to atrophy in Alzheimer’s
Memory loss, personality changes observed as symptoms

Corpus Callosum

Connects information between the left and right cerebral hemispheres
Composed of bundles of myelinated axons.

The Cerebellum

Largest part of hindbrain, important regulatory component contributing to posture, balance, and muscle coordination as well as fine-tuning motor movements.

Cerebellum - Anatomy

Composed of two hemispheres connected by vermis
Numerous sulci and gyri

Cellular Lobes

Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe

Cerebellar Peduncles

The superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles provide connections between cerebellum and other parts of the nervous system.

Diencephalon

Includes thalamus and hypothalamus
Connects cerebrum to brain stem
Includes hypothalamus, mammillary bodies, pineal gland, and subthalamus

Hypothalamus

Important in homeostasis (maintenance of a stable internal environment), controlling hunger, regulating eating habits, temperature, fluid homeostasis
Regulates many hormones & endocrine glands
Produces/secretes many hormones and controls other endocrine glands.

Mamillary Bodies

Pair of nuclei on the posterior aspect of hypothalamus
Involved with recollective memory and goal-oriented behavior.

Epithalamus

Includes pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
Regulates circadian rhythms

The Brainstem

Includes Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

Contains nuclei for life functions like sleep-wake cycles, breathing, pulse & blood pressure, swallowing, and balance as well as other important functions.
Contains 10 out of 12 pairs of cranial nerves Coordinates and integrates many important life functions. Connects brain to the spinal cord

The Midbrain, the Pons, and The Medulla Oblongata

Parts of the brainstem.
Contain nuclei associated with functions like eye movements, auditory and visual reflexes, respiration, heart rate, and swallowing.

Cranial Nerves

12 pairs of cranial nerves, each with a unique path
CNs are nerves that connect directly to the brain,
Each CN has specific function that relates to their primary pathway, origin, destination, and function.

Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Abducens, Trigeminal, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, and Hypoglossal Nerves.

Specific tasks, functions, and pathways of each cranial nerve.

Lacrimal (Tear) Glands, Glossophobia, Salivary Glands, the Heart, Respiratory System & Lungs, Gastrointestinal Tract, Liver & Glycogen, and Kidneys & Bladder

Effects from sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous activity

Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

Anterior and posterior cavities, Vitreous Humor (contains water, electrolytes, metabolites, collagen, and other proteins).
Ciliary muscle, lens, and light refraction
Accommodation

Nearsightedness/ Farsightedness

Emmetropia (normal), myopia (nearsightedness), and hyperopia (farsightedness).

Olfactory Organs

Nasal cavity, olfactory dendrites, olfactory receptor cell bodies, olfactory fibers, olfactory bulb.
Detect smells with unique chemical receptors

Olfactory Adaptation (Nose Blindness)

Reduced perception of a prolonged odorant exposure.

Gustation (Basic Tastes)

Sour
Sweet
Salty
Bitter
Umami

Taste Buds

Filiform papillae, fungiform papillae.
Located on tongue in groups

Salty & Sour Taste

Salty - Na+ enters, depolarizes cells.
Sour - H+ enters, depolarizes cells

Basic Taste Physiology

How taste chemicals depolarize taste receptors.

Spiciness

Capsaicin: activates nociceptor free nerve endings, pain receptors and perceived as spicy
Utilizes TRPV1 receptor mechanism to trigger action potentials, contributing to the sensation of spiciness

The Ear (including components like the cochlear, saccule & utricle)

Anatomy of the ear, including the external ear, middle ear, and inner ear. Includes components like the malleus, incus, stapes; semicircular canals, vestibulocochlear nerve, cochlea, and vestibule.

Hearing (including the cochlea & the spiral organ)

Sound waves traveling through air to inner ear structures, wavelength and frequency, amplitudes
Vibrations in cochlea that stimulate hair cells in the spiral organ
Hearing is associated with the movements of different parts of the ear.

Balance & The Saccule & Utricle

Structures and roles in maintaining balance/equilibrium and sensing head movement

Endolymph

Fluid in the membranous labyrinth that has a high [K+] concentration
Stimulates hair cells due to its flow.

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