Native American History Pre-European Contact

The exchange of people, animals, plants, and microbes between the Americas and Europe after Columbus's voyages.

The arrival of Europeans in the Americas, marking a significant turning point in history and leading to centuries of conflict and change.

The diverse cultures and ways of life of Native Americans before European contact.

The idea that North America was created by Sky Woman falling onto a turtle's back, according to Lenape tradition.

Stories passed down through generations about the origin and beliefs of Native American tribes.

The process of learning about the history and culture of Native Americans from their own perspective.

Native American communities had strong ties to their families and communities, which played a crucial role in their culture and social structure.

The period of time before European colonization, encompassing the diverse societies and cultures of Native Americans.

The migration of Native American ancestors from Asia to North America across the Bering land bridge, which existed during the last glacial period due to lower sea levels.

Ancestral Native Americans who hunted and gathered in small bands, adapting to various environments across the Beringian tundra.

The process by which glaciers melt and retreat, opening new territories and resources for migration.

Evidence from archaeological sites such as Monte Verde in Chile and Florida suggesting human presence in the Americas around 14,500 years ago.

A period in North American prehistory characterized by diverse cultures and adaptations to various environments, such as rivers, plains, mountains, and forests.

The process of using fire to manage forest ecosystems, creating open hunting grounds and preparing land for planting.

A technique where farmers cut down forest areas, burn the undergrowth, and plant crops in the nutrient-rich ash. Then, they move to new areas and let the land recover.

The Three Sisters are corn, beans, and squash, a trio of crops that provided essential nutrients and formed the basis of agriculture in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.

The rise of agriculture, particularly the cultivation of corn, which led to the development of settled populations and civilizations in Mesoamerica around 1200 BCE.

The Eastern Woodlands, a region in North America rich in river valleys, where agriculture flourished, enabling the creation of cities and societies.

The practice of permanent, intensive agriculture using hand tools to manage the rich soil and sustain high yields in the Eastern Woodlands.

The division of labor in Woodland communities, where women typically practiced agriculture, while men focused on hunting and fishing.

The potential negative consequences of the transition to agriculture, such as weaker bones and teeth, observed in some archaeological remains.

The benefits of agriculture, which allowed for specialized roles in society, as farmers could produce surplus food, enabling others to pursue different skills and crafts.

The diverse and rich diets of Native Americans across the continent, which enabled significant population growth before the development of agriculture.

Native American cultures often viewed the natural and supernatural worlds as intertwined and interconnected, rather than separate.

Many Native American societies traced lineage through the mother's line, with mothers having significant influence in family and community affairs. This system often placed mothers in positions of power and control in their communities.

Native American cultures often allowed greater freedom in choices regarding relationships and marriage. Divorce was often a simple process based on mutual agreement.

Most Native American groups believed individuals had ownership of actively used items like tools, weapons, and personal belongings, including access and use of specific lands and resources.

Native American culture relied heavily on a diverse range of communicative and artistic practices, including graphic representations on birch-bark scrolls, woven textiles, quill embroidery, and earth modeling.

The Puebloan people, located in the Southwest, constructed elaborate cliff dwellings as centers of social, cultural, and political life, starting around 1190 CE.

The Puebloan people's sophisticated agricultural practices, extensive trade networks, and even domestication of animals like turkeys allowed for a substantial population growth, particularly in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, from 900 to 1300 CE.

The Chaco Canyon complex served as an important cultural center for the ancestral Puebloan people and featured massive residential structures, including Pueblo Bonito, a six-hundred room building that spanned two acres.

Puebloan spirituality connected the people to both the earth and the heavens. They carefully charted the stars and designed homes in alignment with the sun and moon’s movements.

The Puebloan people faced ecological challenges like deforestation and overirrigation, which contributed to the community's decline and eventual abandonment around 1300 CE.

The Mississippian culture, particularly centered in Cahokia near present-day St. Louis, developed one of the largest civilizations north of modern-day Mexico, reaching a peak population of between 10,000 and 30,000 around 1,000 years ago.

Cahokia, the largest Mississippian city, was a remarkable urban center that spanned 2,000 acres and featured Monks Mound, a massive earthen structure larger than the pyramids of Egypt.

The Mississippian peoples, like the Puebloan, likely faced challenges from the same drought that began around 1130 CE, contributing to their decline and dispersal.

The Mississippian culture flourished for a considerable period, reaching population levels unmatched in North America until after the American Revolution.

Cahokia was a large city in present-day Illinois, known for its mounds and complex social structure.

Cahokia's social structure was based on chiefdoms, with a leader who held both political and religious power.

The city of Cahokia relied on a number of smaller chiefdoms that were under the control of the main leader.

Warfare played a role in maintaining social hierarchy in Cahokia, often leading to the enslavement of captives.

Slavery in Cahokia was not a permanent condition, and enslaved individuals could become members of society through adoption or marriage.

The rapid growth of Cahokia around the year 1050 was a significant turning point in its history, leading to major changes across the city and its surrounding communities.

The decline of Cahokia around the year 1300 is attributed to various factors, including warfare, political tensions, and environmental challenges.

The Mississippi River played a key role in the trading network connecting North American communities, providing a vital transportation route.

Cahokia's strategic location near the Mississippi, Illinois, and Missouri Rivers made it a central hub for trading.

Archaeological evidence, including seashells, copper, and flint, indicates that Cahokia's trade network stretched over vast distances.

Native American societies in the Eastern Woodlands often lived in smaller, dispersed communities to take advantage of resources and maintain flexibility.

The Lenape, or Delawares, were a group of Native American tribes who lived in the Hudson and Delaware River watersheds, known for their strong sense of community and reliance on agriculture.

The Lenape communities were loosely connected through shared history, traditions, political structures, and a matrilineal kinship system.

Lenape women wielded authority over marriage, family life, agriculture, and even played a part in selecting leaders, demonstrating their significant role in society.

Lenape societies thrived due to their farming and fishing skills, cultivating not only corn, beans, and squash, but also tobacco, sunflowers, and medicinal plants.

The seasonal gathering of Lenapes in larger groups for planting and harvesting, allowing for efficient resource utilization and coordination of labor.

Fish camps established by the Lenapes during specific seasons for catching shellfish and shad, demonstrating their fishing expertise.

The use of specialized knowledge to weave nets, baskets, mats, and other household items from rushes found along waterways.

The recognition by early Dutch and Swedish settlers of the prosperity and resourcefulness of the Lenapes, leading to a desire for alliance and mutual benefit.

The rich ecosystem of the Pacific Northwest, characterized by a moderate climate, lush forests, and abundant rivers, providing resources for diverse indigenous populations.

The integral role of salmon in the lives of Pacific Northwest indigenous peoples, influencing their culture, art, and spiritual beliefs.

The practice of treating salmon with spiritual respect and incorporating its image in various cultural expressions, reflecting its importance for sustenance and renewal.

The tradition practiced by the Coast Salish and other groups, celebrating the arrival of migrating salmon and ensuring future abundance.

The practice of observing the size of the salmon run and delaying harvesting to safeguard the spawning population and ensure future resource availability.

A large social event in the Pacific Northwest, highlighting the importance of feasting, celebration, and the demonstration of wealth and prestige through generosity.

The significant population growth in the Pacific Northwest resulting from food surpluses, leading to a unique social organization.

Intricately carved wooden masks, often representing supernatural forces, used in ceremonial dances and festivals to connect with the spiritual world.

The use of giant cedar trees in the Pacific Northwest to construct elaborate homes, reflecting the abundance of resources and the importance of community.

A large cedar tree carved and painted with animals or other figures, telling stories and representing cultural identity, a distinctive art form of the Pacific Northwest.

The diversity and contrast of Native American cultures across the New World, highlighting the wide range of languages, lifestyles, and cultural practices.

A complex and sophisticated civilization that flourished in Central America before European arrival, known for its impressive temples, advanced mathematics, and accurate calendars.

The collapse of Maya civilization, likely due to factors such as droughts and unsustainable agricultural practices.

A powerful Native American civilization that dominated central and southern Mesoamerica before European contact.

The capital city of the Aztec Empire, known for its impressive architecture, canals, and chinampas (floating gardens).

Artificial islands created by the Aztecs in Lake Texcoco, used for intensive agriculture.

The main temple of the Aztecs, located in the center of Tenochtitlan.

A system of tribute and control used by the Aztecs to maintain their empire.

The Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

A Native American translator who aided Cortes in his conquest.

The Aztec emperor who was captured by Cortes and used as a tool to control the empire.

The Aztec uprising against the Spanish, resulting in the death of Montezuma.

The event where Cortes and his army fled Tenochtitlan during the Aztec Revolt, suffering significant casualties.

A Native American society that dominated the Andean region of South America before European arrival.

The capital city of the Inca Empire, located in the Andean highlands.

The vast network of roads built by the Incas to connect their empire and facilitate trade and communication.

A system in which Spain granted land and a specified number of Native Americans as laborers to Spanish settlers in the Americas.

Columbus's belief that he had landed in the East Indies, not the Americas, as he was attempting to reach Asia by sailing west.

The Spanish colonization of the Americas, characterized by the exploitation of Native populations, the search for wealth, and the establishment of a vast empire.

The Native people of the Caribbean islands, often targeted for labor and exploitation by the Spanish.

The Spanish system of forced labor, replacing the encomienda, where Native Americans were required to work for Spanish settlers.

The devastating impact of European diseases, such as smallpox, on Native American populations, who lacked immunity to these diseases.

A brutal and exploitative system used by the Spanish to extract wealth and labor from Native Americans, often characterized by violence and forced labor.

The tendency for European conquerors to view Native Americans as inferior and lacking humanity, justifying their exploitation and violence.

The profound decline in the Native American population after European contact, due to disease, warfare, and forced labor.

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, known for their diverse cultures, languages, and ways of life.

The resilience of Native Americans in the face of European colonialism, their resistance, adaptation, and continued influence on American history.

Columbus's voyages, which led to the Columbian Exchange and the beginning of European colonialism in the Americas.

The Spanish crown's desire for wealth, specifically gold and access to labor, as a primary motivator for the conquest of the Americas.

The Spanish system for managing labor in the Americas, characterized by the granting of land and laborers to Spaniards, often leading to brutal exploitation of Native populations.

The devastating impact of European diseases on Native American populations, leading to a drastic decline in numbers.

The introduction of European domesticated animals, particularly pigs and horses, into the Americas, transforming landscapes and Native American cultures.

The practice of using fire to manage forests, creating open hunting grounds and preparing land for planting.

The use of hand tools to manage rich soil and produce high yields in the Eastern Woodlands, allowing for sustainable agriculture.

The devastating consequences of European arrival, including disease, war, and slavery, leading to a dramatic decline in Native American populations.

The process of using fire to manage natural resources, creating open hunting grounds and preparing land for planting.

A devastating disease that wiped out a significant portion of the Incan population, leaving the empire vulnerable to Spanish conquest.

A bloody power struggle for control of the Incan empire following the death of the emperor Huayna Capac, leaving the empire in disarray.

The Spanish conquistador who led a small force to conquer the weakened Incan empire, seizing the capital city of Cuzco.

The systematic extraction of gold and silver from the Americas by Spanish colonists, relying heavily on Indigenous labor.

Spanish settlers who migrated to the New World in search of land, wealth, and social advancement, contributing to the growth of Spanish colonial society.

A rigid social hierarchy based on racial purity that shaped Spanish colonial society, ranking people based on their ancestry.

Spanish-born Spaniards who held the highest positions of power and wealth in the colonial hierarchy.

Spanish-born descendants of Spanish immigrants who occupied the second highest social level in the colonial hierarchy.

People of mixed Spanish and Indigenous heritage who occupied a middle social position, facing prejudice but possessing some social mobility.

The idea of maintaining pure bloodlines, crucial for gaining social advancement and privileges in Spanish colonial society.

A concept of cultural and racial blending, especially prevalent in Spanish colonial society, where Indigenous and European cultures mingled.

The act of claiming a different racial identity, especially for gaining advantages, which was a strategy employed by some individuals in Spanish colonial society.

The blending of Spanish and Indigenous cultures, creating a hybrid society in New Spain (Mexico).

The Virgin Mary appeared to a Nahuatl-speaking Indigenous man as a dark-skinned woman, becoming a unifying national symbol for Mexican society.

The expansion of Spanish colonization into North America, driven by dreams of finding another wealthy Indigenous empire.

The astrolabe, invented in the 15th century, allowed sailors to calculate their latitude, which was crucial for accurate navigation. It was a major technological innovation that enabled long-distance voyages.

The caravel was a new type of ship developed in the 15th century. It was strong enough to navigate the open ocean, carry large cargo, and travel long distances, unlike earlier ships.

The Portuguese established trading posts along the African coast. These posts brought in profits, which funded further trade and colonization. The expansion of Portuguese power in Africa set the stage for European colonialism.

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, sailed around the coast of Africa in the late 15th century to reach India, opening up new trade routes to Asia. This voyage disrupted traditional trading practices by avoiding Italian middlemen and establishing direct connections.

The Spanish and Portuguese accidentally discovered islands in the Atlantic, including the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands. These islands later played a crucial role in the expansion of European colonialism and the sugar trade.

The sugarcane cultivation on the Atlantic islands became highly profitable and involved a large-scale use of enslaved labor. This created a new pattern of economic growth and human exploitation that would be repeated in the Americas.

The Portuguese introduced enslaved people to work on the sugarcane plantations, first on the Atlantic islands and later in the Americas. This became a central part of the Atlantic slave trade, bringing millions of Africans to the New World.

The Portuguese initially obtained enslaved people from African city-states in exchange for goods like guns and iron. This practice was part of a complex system of trade and alliances in Africa. Despite the trade, the Portuguese were responsible for the horrors of the Atlantic slave trade.

Early European slaving in Africa, much like slavery among Native Americans, was different from the chattel slavery system later developed in the United States. This distinction is crucial for understanding the historical context of the transatlantic slave trade.

The Portuguese established plantation systems on the islands of Madeira, Canaries, and Cape Verde. These plantations produced sugar and became models for later plantation systems in the Americas. This created a new economic structure, with profits centered on the exploitation of enslaved labor.

The island of São Tomé in the Atlantic was a key center for the Portuguese plantation system in the late 15th century. It was a model for the expansion of plantation systems across the Atlantic, utilizing a system of labor-intensive agriculture based on enslaved people.

Europeans expanded their influence in the Atlantic through the establishment of forts, trading posts, and colonies. Driven by economic and political ambitions, they sought to control trade routes and exploit resources that could be found in the New World.

Christopher Columbus, a skilled sailor, believed he could reach Asia by sailing west. While his goal was to find a shorter route to the East Indies, he mistakenly arrived in the Americas, which had a profound impact on history.

Although Europeans knew the world was round, they underestimated its size. Columbus's miscalculation led him to land in the Americas instead of East Asia. This accidental discovery had profound, and often tragic, consequences for the indigenous populations of the Americas.