Job Design: Hackman and Oldham Model

• Jobs are created effectively and efficiently in an organization while providing meaningful work for the employee through job design.

Job Design

• A typical approach involves designing standard "jobs" around tasks that require a common set of skills.

Hackman and Oldham Model

• The model outlines core job characteristics and their impact on employee motivation, satisfaction, performance, and turnover rates.
• Skill variety is the degree to which a job requires a worker to use a wide range of skills.
• Task identity is the extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all tasks needed to complete the task fully.
• Task significance is the degree to which a job affects the lives of other people.
• Autonomy is the extent to which employees can make choices about scheduling and task performance, and represents a "level of freedom" in decision-making and work processes.
• Feedback is the extent to which employees receive clear/direct feedback on their work performance.
• The goal is to create productive and meaningful jobs so employees feel motivated and satisfied with their roles.
• Work groups facilitate collaboration among individuals to perform their tasks, creating clear responsibility and accountability, and clarifying the delegation of authority for making/approving decisions.

Organizational Structure

• Organizational structure is the grouping of jobs into work groups, delegation of authority and responsibility, and formal reporting relationships of employees to supervisors.
• Common organizational structures are functional, divisional, and matrix structures.

Functional Structure

• Jobs requiring similar skills and experience are grouped into a work group.
• Groups report to the leader of the organization.

Divisional Structure

• Jobs are grouped with people of diverse skills and experiences.
• The group focuses on providing specific products, serving specific customer needs, or serving specific geographical areas.

Matrix Structure

• Jobs are grouped simultaneously by function and division.
• Employees "dual-report" to both the vice president of a department and to a division.
• Delegation of Authority, also known as "Agency", is when the power to make most decisions is delegated from shareholders to a Board of Directors elected by the shareholders.

Centralized Organizational Structure

• Most decisions are made or approved by senior executives at the top.

Decentralized Organizational Structure

• Many decisions are delegated to lower levels of management, with managers held accountable for the consequences.

Span of Control

• Span of control is the number of direct reports assigned to a manager.
• More direct reports lead to a broader span of control.
• Fewer direct reports result in a narrower span of control.

Levels of Hierarchy

• Levels of hierarchy are the number of managerial positions between the top and bottom of an organization.
• Fewer levels create a flatter organization.
• More levels result in a taller organization.
• The trend is to create flatter structures. The proper grouping of jobs into work groups helps work getting done effectively and efficiently.
• Appropriate delegation of authority leads to faster and more reliable decisions.

Organization Structure in Integrating and Coordinating Workflows

• Selecting a structure to group jobs allows employees to integrate and coordinate their work easier and more successfully.
• Liaisons are individuals appointed to coordinate activities of their group with other groups.
• They consolidate responsibility to help build relationships between people in those groups.
• Task forces consist of members from multiple groups assembled to address a temporary specific need for coordination.
• Cross-functional teams are similar to task forces but have ongoing responsibility for coordinating activities; task forces are generally more temporary.
• Integrating roles are for individuals assigned as coordinators of activities with other groups, in addition to their other responsibilities.
• Someone who works in the HR department also works with other departments to help them with their annual HR plan.

Organization Culture

• Organization culture is a set of norms, beliefs, values, and attitudes shared by individuals within an organization.
• It influences employee behavior to be consistent with core values, goals, and strategies.
• Culture can be understood, described, and analyzed through content, consensus, and intensity of feelings.
• Content is what is deemed important in the workplace, like teamwork, accountability, and innovation.
• Consensus is how widely norms are shared across people in the organization.
• Intensity of feelings is how people feel about the importance of the norm and the extent to which supporting/going against it will be recognized/sanctioned.

Levels of Organization Culture

• Levels of organization culture go from most easily observable to least easily observable, consisting of artifacts, values, and assumptions.
• Artifacts are easily observed things like dress code and physical layout.
• Artifacts include the way people address each other, the smell and feel of the place, and other visible aspects that represent the culture.
• Values are norms, ideologies, and philosophies that make up the values of the organization.
• Assumptions are underlying, unconscious thoughts of members of the organization that determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings, and behavior.
• Assumptions form the root of understanding culture in an organization
• A weak culture may have difficulty motivating employees to support the organization's core values, goals, and strategies and personal conflicts may be more frequent and difficult to resolve.

Strong Organization Culture

• A strong organization culture is where most employees share the same norms, beliefs, values, and attitudes related to work activities, even with different beliefs outside the workplace.

Changing an Organization's Culture

• The steps to changing an organization's culture are identifying the target culture, measuring the current culture and creating targets, and using "critical levers" to move towards implementing the target culture.
• The BCG 7 Dimensions of Culture is a framework for analyzing culture across key dimensions critical for aligning it with the organization's strategy.

Structured vs Flexible

• Structured vs flexible is how specifically processes and acceptable behaviors are defined and how closely they are followed.
• A structured organization has clearly defined processes and rules strictly followed, while a flexible organization adapts processes and behaviors based on changing circumstances.
• Controlling vs Delegating is the extent to which power and decision-making are concentrated at the top or diffused.
• Cautious vs Risk Permitting is how much the organization supports taking risks.
• Thinking vs Doing is the degree to which people spend time developing ideas versus executing them.
• Diplomatic vs Direct is how transparent interactions and communications are between workers and managers.
• Individualistic vs Collaborative is the extent to which employees are concerned with their individual performance versus shared goals.
• Internal vs External is the extent to which processes and behaviors are oriented towards the outside world versus the internal environment.

Critical Levers

• Includes areas like leadership, people and development, performance management, informal interactions, organization design, resources and tools, and values.

Leadership

• Leadership embodies the behaviors, manner of communication, time management, priority management, and management method of leaders.

People and Development

• People and development include the employees who are recruited and hired, opportunities for meaningful work and career paths, and how talent is promoted and retained.
• Informal Interactions are the nature of peer-to-peer interactions, gatherings, and events.
• Organizational Design in Critical Levers consist of: organizational structure, processes, roles, decision rights, collaboration processes, units' relationship to headquarters, office layout and design.
• Resources and Tools consist of: projects that are funded, access to human resources, management systems, and analytical tools.
• Values consist of: collective beliefs, ideals, and norms that guide peoples' conduct.
• An agile organization has a flexible structure with a people-centered culture featuring rapid learning and fast decision cycles enabled by technology to create value for all stakeholders.

Strategic Human Resources Management

• Strategic Human Resources Management includes identification of current and future talent requirements to support goals and strategy as well as development and implementation of plans/programs to ensure the organization recruits, trains, develops, supports, and retains talent.
• Talent takes time to acquire and fully develop.
• Succession Planning involves identifying likely candidates for future openings in key positions and evaluating each employee's potential for added responsibility.
• This allows organizations to anticipate the availability of qualified talent to fill key positions and work towards developing employees.

Key Activities by Human Resources (HR)

• Key Activities by Human Resources include: Recruitment and Selecting Employees, Training and Development, Performance Appraisal and Feedback, Compensation and Benefits, and Employee Relations.
• Recruitment and Selection comprises identifying, pursuing, and hiring qualified candidates to fill positions within an organization, starting with a well-developed Organization Design including clear job descriptions and necessary qualifications.
• Organizations sometimes seek "shortcuts" in hiring by having a desired person in mind and accelerating the process.
• Connections with hiring managers can influence their judgement on who to hire.
• Training teaches employees the skills necessary to perform effectively in their current job.
• Examples of training: online instruction, supervisor instruction, orientation programs, and employee support programs.
• Development prepares employees for additional responsibilities in future roles or expanded responsibilities in their current role.

Development Examples

• Mentorship programs, sponsoring formal education programs including tuition reimbursement, job rotations to expand experience.
• Is preparing employees to take on added responsibilities in the future.

Performance Appraisal and Feedback

• Employee evaluation and communication process with the goal of providing timely/beneficial feedback to employees.
• It is important for employees to understand how they are performing and how they can improve.
• Performance appraisals are based on pre-established standards or realistic goals understood/agreed upon by the employee, conducted on regular intervals, and objective/constructive to help the employee grow.
• Performance appraisals are balanced in highlighting good performance areas and bad performance areas.
• Compensation and Benefits is a program and process for providing competitive pay and incentives to employees in support of the organization's goals, strategy, and values, helping to attract and retain qualified employees to motivate them to perform at their fullest potential.
• Employee Benefits cover: health insurance, dental insurance, life insurance, vacation time, sick days, dependent day care assistance, and other valuable programs.
• Employee Relations comprises various programs, services, activities, and communications by the organization to foster a positive relationship between employees & organization.
• Employee Relations includes suggestion boxes for improving the organization, company-sponsored social events, and company websites with employee information.

Equal Employment Opportunity

• Prohibits organizations from discriminating against job candidates and workers based on race, religion, gender, or national origin.
• It also includes age and disability discrimination.
• Quid Pro Quo Sexual Harassment occurs when consent to sexual acts affects job outcomes.
• Hostile Work Environment Sexual Harassment occurs when unwelcomed sexual behavior creates an intimidating and offensive workplace.
• Compensation and Benefits in Equal Employment requires equal pay for men and women and requires employers with over 49 workers to provide up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family or medical reasons.

Employee Engagement

• A state of mind an employee has towards their job and their employer + level of positive and productive behavior exhibited by the employee.
• One key aspect of employee engagement refers to the outlook employees have toward their organizations and their jobs.

Translates to Employee Commitment

• Less absenteeism, lower turnover, more willingness to offer suggestions, more sharing favorable commentary about the company, and more discretionary effort.
• Discretionary effort is going above and beyond usual expectations to further support the company's success like putting in extra time and effort to complete tasks, offering ways to challenges.
• Key Drivers of Employee Engagement: leaders who commit to making their organizations great places to work who value their employees.
• It is also due to managers who engender good relationships with subordinates and provide them with meaningful jobs.
• An engaged workplace has a culture that creates a positive environment based on trust, respect, communication, and HR practices that ensure fairness.
• Employee Engagement Outcomes prioritizes factors based on their impact on engagement by Aon-Hewitt: Say, Stay, and Strive.
• "Say" translates to promoting the organization through word-of-mouth to coworkers, potential employees, and customers.
• "Stay" means employees have an intense sense of belonging and desire to be part of the organization.
• "Strive" means employees are motivated and exert effort toward success in their job and for the company.

Improving Employee Engagement

• Define and communicate what Employee Engagement means for the organization, and why it's important to increase levels of engagement.
• Measure the current level, and prioritize the initiatives that are most likely to improve engagement levels based on measurement results and understanding key drivers.
• Develop an action plan based on proven approaches, monitor progress and make corrections, and confirm that the improvements are making a diffference in achieving goals.
• Reward and recognize those involved in the improvement process.

Performance Management

• Performance Management is delivery of superior results through measurement, assessment, evaluation, and improvement.
• Performance Management is based on Performance Management Principles.
• Performance Management Principles are Frameworks that set the foundation for achieving high performance.
• The Role of Leadership: develop and communicate direction for the organization and support that vision by investing in capabilities necessary to fulfill it.
• Customer Focus: Creating superior value for consumers based on commitment.
• High Performance Environment: Use a process-based view that integrates multiple activities and functions working collaboratively.
• Fact-Based Management is Use a collection of balanced measurements and objective, comprehensive business assessments evaluated to understand how the organization performs against standards. Relentless improvement is embracing a commitment to always doing better with experts trained to deliver improvement.
• Innovation and Renewal: Continually seek creative ideas.

Key Elements of Performance Management

• Business Process Management, Business Measurement/Assessment/Evaluation, Business Improvement Methods and Tools.
• Business Process Management (BPM) is managers using Business Processes to help them better understand and manage the activities at their organization.
• Business Improvement Methods and Tools are Managers using proven improvement methods and tools to improve performance.
• A process is a series of steps/actions to convert a set of inputs into outputs; all work is performed in an effective process.
• Effective Process: Delivers outputs that satisfy the customers receiving the desired behaviors and the producers being satisfied from the value created.
• Efficient Process is a process that must be Effective and also generates an adequate return on the capital employed to operate the process.
• Process Maps: Visual depictions of the multiple steps for converting inputs to outputs.
• SIPOC Map: process depiction, includes Customers, Outputs, Process, Inputs, and Suppliers; starts w/ Customers. Swimlane Process Map is a flowchart like map that identifies each department involved, depicts what responsibilities they have, and shows decision points and alternative paths.
• BPM Summary: Understanding how to make processes work better and operate effectively and efficiently.
• Business Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation helps organizations understand how processes are performing as well as understanding general performance, prioritizing improvements.

Key Measurements

• Measures of Effectiveness: They evaluate whether customer requirements are being met.
• Measures of Efficiency: They evaluate whether the value of outputs is creating value for the organization relative to costs of inputs.
• Lagging Measures provides data on the organization's performance after the processes are completed
• Leading Measures evaluates the process in progress, or even before the start of the process, and can be predictive of likely results
• A Well-Dressed Measure: has all the necessary material for accurate presentation of data.
• includes having the Title, Goal, Minimum Acceptable Performance, Results, Benchmark, Axes, Performance Status, Owner, Up to Date Data
• Balanced Scorecard focus on financial and non-financial objectives
• Includes financial, customer, internal process, organizational capacity.
• Business Assessment is a second approach to evaluate business performance; it has 7 categories. Leadership, Strategy, Customers, Knowledge Management, Workforce, Operations, and Results Can be used to spot strengths and weaknesses and evaluates business results and how processes are managed.
• Business Evaluation is collecting and analyzing external/internal data and improving opportunities. Successful organizations focus on leadership and improvement. Six Sigma: Data-driven cycle of improvement in both upper and lower class DMAIC: used to improve process and reduce defects - define measure analyze improve control
• Lean Methodology: To primary find eliminate waste. Waste: Creating no value Influence: loyalty and helping people support there goals Managers: Action oriented informed and tactful Leadership effectivness overall performance Traits: energy greater and intelligence
• Task leaders: primarily on tasks
• Person Leaders: focused on relationships
• Char leaders: persuasive and personalities
• Servant Lead: by super successful
• Transformation: Move to the right
• Strategic leaders: what will make vision come true
• Tran leader: uses rewards
• Con leader: each theory depend on leaders
• Lea-mem relation to extend follows trust and loyal
• Task-know: subordinate to know what to do.
• Decision: making a choice

Other Notes

• Communication is a "sender" and a receiver when meaning is interpretable to both.
• Informative to persuade
• Method: verbal or written or nonverbal
• Way of communication for managers.
• Way of fulfill as leader: relationship, compass mission, enables people to succeed
• Conflict workplace: dislike people
• Effective deal conflict: to arguments
• Preparation nego: effectively handles
• Power nego: empowering leverage
• position: the demands
• interest: underlying not stated
• Creating values: mutual benefits
• Claiming: one outcome expense
• Identify the way: ethical.
• Done well; Effectively
• Get well; communication