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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
What critical factor primarily determines the categorization of coal mining methods?
What critical factor primarily determines the categorization of coal mining methods?
- The depth, density, and thickness of the coal seam. (correct)
- The geographical location of the coal deposit.
- The proximity of the coal deposit to urban areas.
- The carbon content of the coal being extracted.
A company is considering drilling an offshore rig for oil exploration. What would be the economic implication if the rig turns out to be a 'dry hole'?
A company is considering drilling an offshore rig for oil exploration. What would be the economic implication if the rig turns out to be a 'dry hole'?
- The company would only lose the cost of the initial geological surveys.
- The company would incur losses equivalent to the average cost of successful oil wells in the region.
- The company could recover costs by selling drilling equipment.
- The company would face losses, potentially substantial, due to the high costs of drilling. (correct)
In what scenarios might economic incentives, such as water-use metering and tariff systems, prove to be a disadvantage rather than a solution for promoting efficient water use?
In what scenarios might economic incentives, such as water-use metering and tariff systems, prove to be a disadvantage rather than a solution for promoting efficient water use?
- When the revenue generated is reinvested back into improving water infrastructure and conservation.
- When they are applied uniformly across all sectors, including agriculture and industry.
- When these systems are implemented in regions with abundant and easily accessible water resources.
- When they disproportionately affect low-income populations who cannot afford the tariffs. (correct)
How does the extensive use of surface or open-pit mining techniques contribute to environmental challenges?
How does the extensive use of surface or open-pit mining techniques contribute to environmental challenges?
Considering that a shift to alternative energy sources is controversial, what factors contribute primarily to the ongoing debate surrounding their widespread adoption?
Considering that a shift to alternative energy sources is controversial, what factors contribute primarily to the ongoing debate surrounding their widespread adoption?
What is the most accurate description of 'diagenesis' in the context of petroleum formation?
What is the most accurate description of 'diagenesis' in the context of petroleum formation?
How does the degree of salinity in ocean water contribute to global changes in carbon dioxide levels?
How does the degree of salinity in ocean water contribute to global changes in carbon dioxide levels?
In regions facing water scarcity, what is the significance of rainwater harvesting in addressing water crisis/stress?
In regions facing water scarcity, what is the significance of rainwater harvesting in addressing water crisis/stress?
Considering the process of carbonization in coal formation, what critical role does pressure play in converting dead vegetation into coal?
Considering the process of carbonization in coal formation, what critical role does pressure play in converting dead vegetation into coal?
How does a moderator enhance nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor?
How does a moderator enhance nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor?
In regions facing economic water scarcity, what factors are most likely to exacerbate the challenges related to water availability?
In regions facing economic water scarcity, what factors are most likely to exacerbate the challenges related to water availability?
Given that water is a critical component of Earth's systems, what would be the most far-reaching consequence if a substantial portion of the world's freshwater resources were to become heavily polluted?
Given that water is a critical component of Earth's systems, what would be the most far-reaching consequence if a substantial portion of the world's freshwater resources were to become heavily polluted?
What is the primary function of control rods in a nuclear power plant, and how do they achieve this?
What is the primary function of control rods in a nuclear power plant, and how do they achieve this?
Considering the composition of natural gas, what implication does methane have as a greenhouse gas, compared to carbon dioxide?
Considering the composition of natural gas, what implication does methane have as a greenhouse gas, compared to carbon dioxide?
What is the most accurate description of the 'zone of saturation' and its role in groundwater systems?
What is the most accurate description of the 'zone of saturation' and its role in groundwater systems?
Considering the complexity of coal gasification, what by-products are generated in addition to carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2)?
Considering the complexity of coal gasification, what by-products are generated in addition to carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2)?
What is the key difference between temporary and permanent hardness in water, and how does this difference impact water treatment strategies?
What is the key difference between temporary and permanent hardness in water, and how does this difference impact water treatment strategies?
In the context of ecosystem dynamics, what critical role do 'abiotic' factors play, and what characteristics define them?
In the context of ecosystem dynamics, what critical role do 'abiotic' factors play, and what characteristics define them?
How do freshwater and saltwater ecosystems differ in terms of salinity, and what impact does this difference have on the biodiversity and species distribution?
How do freshwater and saltwater ecosystems differ in terms of salinity, and what impact does this difference have on the biodiversity and species distribution?
The surface receives 51% of the total solar energy that reaches the Earth, why is it hard to harness effectively?
The surface receives 51% of the total solar energy that reaches the Earth, why is it hard to harness effectively?
What factors allow some mountain biomes to be described as having 'vertical zonation'?
What factors allow some mountain biomes to be described as having 'vertical zonation'?
What critical role do coastal salt marshes play in supporting marine and terrestrial ecosystems?
What critical role do coastal salt marshes play in supporting marine and terrestrial ecosystems?
How do mountainous regions influence local climate patterns through the 'rain shadow effect'?
How do mountainous regions influence local climate patterns through the 'rain shadow effect'?
What critical insights does measuring turbidity in water samples provide, and how does this information aid in environmental monitoring?
What critical insights does measuring turbidity in water samples provide, and how does this information aid in environmental monitoring?
What is the key difference between UN REDD Program and what it aims to achieve?
What is the key difference between UN REDD Program and what it aims to achieve?
How does analyzing Vitrinite Reflection (VR, %) assist in determining the quality and potential yield of crude oil reserves?
How does analyzing Vitrinite Reflection (VR, %) assist in determining the quality and potential yield of crude oil reserves?
What implications does the presence of 'dissolved oxygen (DO)' have on the health and stability of an aquatic ecosystem?
What implications does the presence of 'dissolved oxygen (DO)' have on the health and stability of an aquatic ecosystem?
Why have US policies to counter wild fires been ineffective?
Why have US policies to counter wild fires been ineffective?
How does 'desertification' affect the biological productivity and long-term sustainability of dryland ecosystems?
How does 'desertification' affect the biological productivity and long-term sustainability of dryland ecosystems?
Given that high rates of deforestation continue to occur in many regions, what strategies can be implemented to mitigate the negative impacts and combat the trend?
Given that high rates of deforestation continue to occur in many regions, what strategies can be implemented to mitigate the negative impacts and combat the trend?
What are the key principles and practices associated with climate-smart agriculture (CSA)?
What are the key principles and practices associated with climate-smart agriculture (CSA)?
When looking at how to increase crop management, what step should be followed?
When looking at how to increase crop management, what step should be followed?
How does the process of 'acid deposition' occur, and what environmental impacts are associated with it?
How does the process of 'acid deposition' occur, and what environmental impacts are associated with it?
What critical factors determine the classification and characteristics of different 'soil textures'?
What critical factors determine the classification and characteristics of different 'soil textures'?
What is the main source of land pollution?
What is the main source of land pollution?
What critical characteristics define Taiga?
What critical characteristics define Taiga?
What is true about temperate shrubland?
What is true about temperate shrubland?
If a water source appears cloudy what could be implied?
If a water source appears cloudy what could be implied?
What impact does the increasing of vegetation cover in the ecosystem has?
What impact does the increasing of vegetation cover in the ecosystem has?
Considering the geological processes involved in the formation of petroleum, under what specific conditions does organic matter transform into kerogen?
Considering the geological processes involved in the formation of petroleum, under what specific conditions does organic matter transform into kerogen?
What conditions most accurately describe the environment conducive to plankton thriving, which is essential for petroleum formation?
What conditions most accurately describe the environment conducive to plankton thriving, which is essential for petroleum formation?
What primary factor determines whether sediment containing organic matter will transform into black shale, a crucial step in hydrocarbon formation?
What primary factor determines whether sediment containing organic matter will transform into black shale, a crucial step in hydrocarbon formation?
What critical role does Vitrinite Reflectance (VR, %) play in the assessment of crude oil reserves?
What critical role does Vitrinite Reflectance (VR, %) play in the assessment of crude oil reserves?
What is the primary implication of methane as a greenhouse gas, considering the composition of natural gas?
What is the primary implication of methane as a greenhouse gas, considering the composition of natural gas?
In the context of unconventional natural gas extraction, what conditions typically characterize shale gas reservoirs?
In the context of unconventional natural gas extraction, what conditions typically characterize shale gas reservoirs?
What is the primary environmental concern associated with the surface or open-pit mining of unconventional oil resources like oil shale?
What is the primary environmental concern associated with the surface or open-pit mining of unconventional oil resources like oil shale?
Considering the composition of coal, what role does carbonization play in converting dead vegetation into coal?
Considering the composition of coal, what role does carbonization play in converting dead vegetation into coal?
What distinguishes anthracite from other types of coal?
What distinguishes anthracite from other types of coal?
During the process of producing coke from coal, what primary change occurs?
During the process of producing coke from coal, what primary change occurs?
How do control rods regulate nuclear fission?
How do control rods regulate nuclear fission?
What critical role do moderator elements, such as water, play in nuclear reactors?
What critical role do moderator elements, such as water, play in nuclear reactors?
Considering the steps in processing uranium for nuclear power, what characteristic of uranium-235 (²³⁵U) makes it suitable for nuclear fission?
Considering the steps in processing uranium for nuclear power, what characteristic of uranium-235 (²³⁵U) makes it suitable for nuclear fission?
What is the primary limitation of solar energy as a consistent energy source, affecting its widespread adoption?
What is the primary limitation of solar energy as a consistent energy source, affecting its widespread adoption?
Given the attributes of silicon-based solar cells, what poses a significant barrier to their widespread adoption?
Given the attributes of silicon-based solar cells, what poses a significant barrier to their widespread adoption?
How does the energy content of ethanol compare to gasoline?
How does the energy content of ethanol compare to gasoline?
What is the primary process used to produce biodiesel from vegetable oil or animal fat?
What is the primary process used to produce biodiesel from vegetable oil or animal fat?
In the context of water resources, what does 'water scarcity' specifically imply?
In the context of water resources, what does 'water scarcity' specifically imply?
What distinguishes temporary hardness from permanent hardness in water?
What distinguishes temporary hardness from permanent hardness in water?
What is the primary cause of hypoxia in aquatic ecosystems, such as the Gulf of Mexico?
What is the primary cause of hypoxia in aquatic ecosystems, such as the Gulf of Mexico?
How does salinity level contribute to changes in global carbon dioxide levels?
How does salinity level contribute to changes in global carbon dioxide levels?
What is the primary purpose of measuring turbidity in water samples, and how does it aid in environmental monitoring?
What is the primary purpose of measuring turbidity in water samples, and how does it aid in environmental monitoring?
If water appears cloudy, what could be implied?
If water appears cloudy, what could be implied?
What impact does increasing vegetation cover in the ecosystem have?
What impact does increasing vegetation cover in the ecosystem have?
Beyond economic incentives, what are the primary limitations associated with water-use metering and tariff systems to promote efficient water use?
Beyond economic incentives, what are the primary limitations associated with water-use metering and tariff systems to promote efficient water use?
Under what specific soil conditions do plants die?
Under what specific soil conditions do plants die?
What is the direct impact of unsustainable groundwater extraction?
What is the direct impact of unsustainable groundwater extraction?
How does acid deposition influence soil and plant health?
How does acid deposition influence soil and plant health?
What factors primarily contribute to the ongoing debate surrounding their widespread adoption of alternative energy sources?
What factors primarily contribute to the ongoing debate surrounding their widespread adoption of alternative energy sources?
How does the UN REDD+ program function to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation?
How does the UN REDD+ program function to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation?
What is a critical consequence of 'desertification' on dryland ecosystems?
What is a critical consequence of 'desertification' on dryland ecosystems?
What is the main objective when looking at climate-smart agriculture (CSA)?
What is the main objective when looking at climate-smart agriculture (CSA)?
What is the main reason terrestrial biomes are impacted by latitudes and altitudes?
What is the main reason terrestrial biomes are impacted by latitudes and altitudes?
How might mountainous region influence local climate patterns through the 'rain shadow effect'?
How might mountainous region influence local climate patterns through the 'rain shadow effect'?
What critical insight does measuring the net primary productivity (NPP) provide?
What critical insight does measuring the net primary productivity (NPP) provide?
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
High Resolution Mapping
High Resolution Mapping
Maps used for large-scale representation of an area.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
Information about the health and status of plant communities.
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
Energy from sources that are continuously available and naturally replenishable.
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels
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Alternative Energy
Alternative Energy
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Solar energy
Solar energy
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Wind energy
Wind energy
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Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy
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Biofuel
Biofuel
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Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy
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Hydropower
Hydropower
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Petroleum
Petroleum
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Crude oil
Crude oil
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Formation of petroleum
Formation of petroleum
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Oil shale
Oil shale
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Tar sands/Oil sands
Tar sands/Oil sands
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Hydraulic fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing
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Methane hydrate
Methane hydrate
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Coal
Coal
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Carbonization
Carbonization
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Coal gas
Coal gas
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Release of nuclear energy
Release of nuclear energy
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Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission
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Moderator
Moderator
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Control rods
Control rods
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Methane Hydrate
Methane Hydrate
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Hydropower
Hydropower
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Tidal power
Tidal power
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Wave Power
Wave Power
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Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaics (PV)
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Biofuel
Biofuel
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Biomass
Biomass
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Ethanol
Ethanol
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Biodiesel
Biodiesel
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Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal
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Hydrologic cycle
Hydrologic cycle
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Water Footprint
Water Footprint
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Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting
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Groundwater
Groundwater
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Aquifer
Aquifer
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Alternative Energy Controversies
Alternative Energy Controversies
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Diagenesis
Diagenesis
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Black Shale Formation
Black Shale Formation
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Kerogen
Kerogen
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Vitrinite Reflection (VR, %)
Vitrinite Reflection (VR, %)
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Reservoirs (oil)
Reservoirs (oil)
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Shale Gas
Shale Gas
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Making Coke
Making Coke
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Coal Mining considerations
Coal Mining considerations
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Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Decay
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Coal Gas equation
Coal Gas equation
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Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
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Turbidity (NTU)
Turbidity (NTU)
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Effects of Temporary Hardness
Effects of Temporary Hardness
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Total Hardness
Total Hardness
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Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia
Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia
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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
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Hypoxia
Hypoxia
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total organic carbon (TOC)
total organic carbon (TOC)
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Salinity
Salinity
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Air Quality
Air Quality
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
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Land Cover
Land Cover
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Land Degradation
Land Degradation
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Land Pollution
Land Pollution
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Other land
Other land
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Biosphere
Biosphere
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Organism
Organism
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Biome
Biome
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Study Notes
Study Notes
High Resolution Mapping
- High Resolution Mapping = Large Scale Map
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
- NPP provides data regarding the health and status of vegetative communities.
Renewable Energy
- Renewable energy sources involve continuous use and are natural sources.
- Examples of renewable energy: Solar, Wind, Hydropower, Tides, Waves, Biomass, Biofuel, Geothermal
Fossil Fuels (Natural Fuel/Hydrocarbon)
- Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing materials that are formed naturally.
- These fuels are non-renewable.
- Examples: oil, coal, gas
- Fossil fuels are made from decomposing animals, plants and organic matter.
Alternative Energy
- Alternative energy sources are options that are less traditional and have lower environmental impacts than fossil fuels.
- Benefits include decreased CO2 emissions and mitigation of global warming, as well as a smaller environmental footprint.
- Acceptance of alternative energy sources is controversial over time, often sparking debate due to reliability and environmental impact.
- Types of alternative energy include renewable sources (Solar, Wind, Geothermal, Biofuel, Hydropower) + nuclear energy.
- Solar energy harnesses energy from the sun.
- Wind energy uses wind turbines to generate electricity.
- Geothermal energy utilizes heat from the Earth's interior.
- Biofuel is energy from organic materials.
- Nuclear energy uses nuclear fission to generate energy.
- Hydropower generates electricity from flowing water
Petroleum
- Petroleum can be called refined crude oil or fossil fuel
- Petroleum is comprised of naturally occurring hydrocarbons (hydrogen + carbon).
- It's a mixture of different hydrocarbons, including:
- Solid Hydrocarbons (Asphalt)
- Liquid Hydrocarbons (Crude oil)
- Gas Hydrocarbons (Natural gas: methane, butane, propane, etc.)
- Methane (CH4) is the simplest hydrocarbon.
Crude Oil
- Crude oil is the liquid term for petroleum and is a subset of petroleum.
- All crude oil is petroleum, but not all petroleum is crude oil
- Crude oil is unrefined and needs to be processed for usage.
Formation of Petroleum
- The transformation of plankton into petroleum takes millions of years.
- Most oil and gas start as microscopic plants and animals that live in the ocean.
- The process is: Plankton die > Sink to seabed (Form organic mush) > (Time) > Fossil Fuel (Petroleum)
- Plankton thrive where deep ocean currents bring nutrient-rich water to the surface, allowing them to bloom.
- If there's little to no oxygen, the organic mush accumulates because animals cannot survive.
Black Shale Formation
- Sediment with more than 5% organic matter forms black shale.
- As black shale is buried, it heats up and generates hydrocarbons.
- At higher temperatures, the organic matter changes into kerogen (a solid form of hydrocarbon).
- At about 90°C, it turns into liquid oil.
- At around 150°C, it becomes gas.
- Source Rock: Rock producing oil and gas
- Oil and gas migrate upwards
Reservoirs
- Rising oil and gas get trapped in pockets within the rock, known as reservoirs.
- Reservoirs are underground rock formations.
Kerogen
- Kerogen exists in Sedimentary Rocks and is a mixture of organic chemical compounds with very long carbon chains.
Exploration - Drilling the Well
- Once oil or gas is identified, a hole is drilled to access it.
- Cost of drilling is expensive
- Offshore rig may cost around $10K for each metre drilled.
- A company faces vast losses for every “dry hole” drilled
Directional Drilling
- Most wells are vertical as they are inexpensive and easy to make
- Angled drilling is about 5-8% in the US
- Horizontal drilling more common as it exposes a lot of formation to the borehole, less surface disturbance
Unconventional Oil
- Oil shale is an organic-rich, fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen
- Oil shale is a substitute for crude oil.
- Oil shale is expensive but easy to find in the US since there are major deposits.
- Surface or open pit mining causes extensive environmental concerns
Tar sands/Oil Sands
- Tar sands is a mixture of sand, clay, and water.
- It is a sandstone/sedimentary rock with viscous forms (Bitumin = solid/half-solid petroleum).
- This is an unconventional source of oil found in large quantities in Canada with higher oil prices
Oil Transport
- Pipelines (i.e. Trans-Alaskan Pipeline) transport most of world's oil from well to refinery.
- Oil Tankers (By boat) also transport oil.
Composition of Natural Gas
- The composition of natural gas includes:
- Methane (82% of natural gas composition): CH4
- Ethane: C2H6 (H3C-CH3)
- Propane: C3H8 (H3C-CH2-CH3)
- Butane: C4H10 (H3C-CH2-CH2-CH3)
- Hydrogen: H2
- Acid Gases: CO2, H2S, and other S contained components
Conventional vs Unconventional Natural Gas
- Conventional natural gas is easy to produce, whereas unconventional is difficult.
Shale Gas
- Shale gas is natural gas produced from Shale (Sedimentary Rock).
- It has low permeability, preventing gas to flow in economical quantities.
- Requires fractures artificially created by hydraulic fracturing.
- It is a major source of natural gas in US, Canada
Hydraulic Fracturing
- Hydraulic Fracturing is a drilling technique using water and additives pumping under high pressure into a completed well.
- It is used to blast open fractures in fossil fuel-bearing rocks and is one of the key technologies making gas extraction from impermeable shales cost-effective.
"Fire Ice" (Methane Hydrates)
- "Fire Ice" is made of methane molecules trapped by ice crystals.
- It is widespread within shallow sediments of the world's continental shelves to slopes.
- Methane Hydrates contain X2 the size of all Biofuels and is easy to find.
- No technology exists yet for commercial production, but it exists in moderately low temperatures and moderately high pressures.
Methane Hydrate
- Methane Hydrate is a crystalline solid consisting of gas molecules, usually methane, surrounded by a cage of water molecules (CH4.5.57H2O)
- Sedimentary methane hydrate reservoir probably contains 2-10 times the currently known reserves of conventional natural gas as of 2013.
- They form by migration of gas from deep along geological survey followed by precipitation or crystallization, then on contact of the rising gas stream with cold sea water.
Coal
- Coal is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
- Coal is a black to brownish-black rock that can catch fire.
- It's a complex mixture of many compounds, mainly carbon (over 85%), with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.
- Coal has been used as fuel for hundreds of years.
- It is the largest source of energy for electricity production globally, providing 41% of the world's electricity.
- In the U.S., about 90% of coal is used to generate electricity.
Formation of Coal
- Coal forms from decaying plants that are buried under layers of rock over a long time in addition to pressure
- The weight of the rocks applies pressure, which helps remove impurities.
- Carbonization converts dead vegetation into coal, increasing its carbon content.
- Organic matter mainly comes from land plants that builds up in low-energy environments, like swamps.
- Examples of coal include: • Peat and lignite - High moisture content, Soft texture • Bituminous/soft coal - Most common, widely used • Anthracite - Hard, high carbon content
How Coal is Made
- Coal is heated to 2,000°C in an oven without oxygen and becomes high in carbon content.
- Coal loses water and impurities (ammonia and gas) during the process and is used as fuel for heating.
Coal Tar
- Coal Tar comes from making coke and purifying coal gas and can be used for shipbuilding, construction, modern uses involve pavements, road construction, and medical application.
Coal Gas
- Coal Gas, used for energy production, is made of Coal + O2 + Steam
- The reaction creates carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), among other gases.
- It was used for energy production
- Before 1950s in the US, all fuel and lighting gas came from coal gas
Coal Reserves
- There is an expected amount of coal to be mined equaling a total of 800-900 gigatons (2006), which will last for approximately 132 years.
Coal Mining
- Coal mining depends primarily on depth, density, thickness.
- Surface mining occurs at depths above 180ft
- Underground mining occurs at depths below 300ft, 60% of world coal production
Release of Nuclear Energy
- Nuclear energy is released by three exoenergetic (energy release) processes: Nuclear Fission, Fusion, and Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive decay emits geothermal energy
- Some tiny parts (Neutron/Protons) inside atoms are unstable.
- These unstable parts break down and send out tiny particles (EM radiation, Gamma rays) and energy, giving off heat.
- This helps warm the inside of the earth and emits geothermal energy.
Nuclear Fission
- Nuclear fission (Think 2 things fusing together) involves two atomic nuclei fusing together to form a heavier nucleus, but it is NOT a chain reaction.
Nuclear Fission
- Nuclear fission involves splitting a heavy atom's nucleus to release energy, in a continuous chain reaction.
- Fission usually happens in heavy atoms like uranium or plutonium.
- The 2 split nucleus is called “daughter nuclei”.
- All fission products have kinetic energy, and energy is released during the fission process
Moderator
- A moderator slows down neutrons through colliding with light atoms.
- In many US reactors, water is used as the moderator.
- Neutrons lose most energy when hitting atoms of same mass (i.e. hydrogen), slowing down neutrons makes it easier to cause fission in the reactor.
Control Rods
- Control Rods control neutrons and the rate of fissions.
- They are made of material absorbing excess neutrons (usually Boron or Cadmium).
- Control Rods control # of neutrons, and the ability to control rate of fissions.
Basic Ideas of Nuclear Power Plant
- Fuel: Uranium
- Fission Process: Neutrons cause fission, which releases energy.
- Moderator: Water acts as a moderator, slowing down neutrons, and also transfers heat.
- Control Rods: Control rods are used to regulate the energy output by absorbing excess neutrons.
- Energy Conversion: The nuclear energy is converted into heat, which generates steam. This steam drives a turbine connected to a generator, producing electricity
Processing of Uranium
- Uranium Ore: Rock containing Uranium
- Steps of Processing Uranium:
- Process uranium ore near mine (Produce “yellow cake” (concentrated form of uranium called U3O8)
- In this yellow cake, 0.7% is uranium-235 (235U), the isotope here is useful for nuclear fission and power
- Most uranium (99.3%) is 238U which CANNOT be used for fission power. • Uranium = Nuclear energy source that can be used for energy and nuclear weapons.
Controlling Chain Reaction Depends On
- Controlling Chain Reaction Depends on Arrangement, Quality, and Neutron energy
- Arrangement of fuel/control rods
- Quality of moderator
- Quality of Uranium fuel
- Neutron energy required for high probability of fission
Daya Nuclear Power Plant
- Daya Nuclear Power Plant located in mainland China supplies 80% of its output supplies to Hong Kong.
Hydropower and Dams
- Hydropower and Dams are a Renewable Resource
- Power is taken from the energy of falling water/ running water.
- Hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of a dammed water driving a water turbine and generator.
- It is emission-free with low operating and maintenance cost.
- Cons of hydropower:
- Potential loss of habitat, dependent of rainfall/snowfall, impacts on river flows and aquatic ecology.
Tidal Power
- Tidal Power is a form of hydropower that converts energy of tides into electricity.
- Tidal power is more predictable than wind and solar.
- High cost, limited availability of sites, first large-scale tidal power plant in France (1966)
Wave Power
- Wave Power is a form of hydropower that uses transport of energy through ocean surface waves
- First experimental wave farm in Portugal (2008)
Wind Power
- Wind turbines produce no emissions, no fuel needed, uses distributed power and remote locations.
Solar Energy Facts
- The surface receives about 51% of the total solar energy that reaches the Earth.
- Solar thermal energy has mirrored surface that reflects sunlight to heat up liquid to make steam to generate electricity
- Solar energy can be converted to Photovoltaics (PV) (Light > Electric currents)
Cell-Module-Array
- Module: A number of cells connected to each other
- Array: Multiple modules wired together
Silicon-Based Solar Cell Attributes
- Solar cells are expensive
- Made in high vacuum at high heat with high manufacturing costs.
- Fragile, rigid, and thick and has long return on investment.
- Takes 4 years to produce energy savings equipment to cost of production
Biofuel
- Biofuel is fuel containing energy from recent carbon fixation (i.e. plants or microalgae)
- Made by biomass conversion (thermal, chemical, biochemical) as fuels can be solid, liquid, or gas form.
- 2 most widely used biofuels are Ethanol and Biodiesel and are first-generation or conventional biofuels made from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil that can easily be extracted using conventional technology
Biomass
- This is a biological material taken from living or recently living organisms, generally plant or plant-based materials
- It is the largest biomass source: wood, forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, etc.
Ethanol
- Ethanol is produced by action of microorganisms and enzymes through fermentation of sugar, starches, or cellulose.
- It is the most common biofuel worldwide, that is used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline
- Ethanol can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage and has ½ lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline
Biodiesel
- Biodiesel is vegetable oil or animal fat based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters that can be used alone or blended
- It can significantly dissolve crude oil and is used to treat oil spills with 100% biodiesel referred to as B100.
- It is produced through the chemical reaction of transesterification, reacting with methanol or ethanol
- Generally base-catalyzed reaction
Second-generation Biofuels
- This is made from lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste
- It is harder to extract required fuel
Water
- Water is an inorganic compound, H2O
- It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, colorless chemical substance and is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms
- Water covers 71% of Earth's surface and becomes less dense when frozen
Lake Baikal
- Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake by volume (636km x 79km x 11642m)
- Containing ~20% of the world's unfrozen surface fresh water
- Lake Baikal is larger than the Great lakes combined
- It is the world's deepest, clearest, oldest (25 million years) lake
- Has more than 1000 species of plants and 2500 species of animals
Hydrologic Cycle
- The hydrologic cycle is global water cycle where water is transported from oceans to atmosphere to land and back to ocean
- Effects on climate (Evaporative cooling, 67c otherwise on Earth surface)
- Effects on biogeochemical cycling
Global Water Consumption
- US, Australia, Italy, Japan, and Mexico are top 5 average water use per person per day
- Water use by sector:
- Agriculture 67%, Households 9%, Water supply 8%, Power 7%, Manufacturing 4%, Mining 2%, Other 3%
- US 41% Agriculture, whereas China uses water for 87% of agriculture
Water Use
- 1,857 gallons = 1 pound of beef
- 469 gallons = 1 pound of chicken
- 84 gallons = 1 pound of apples
- During a cow's lifetime, 816,000 gallons of water for food, drinking, and hygiene
Water Availability
- Water scarcity is Less than 1,000 m³ of freshwater per person per year, which indicates serious and widespread freshwater issues.
- Water stress is Less than 1,700 m³ of freshwater per person per year, which results in temporary and localized shortages.
- Relative sufficiency is More than 2,500 m³ of freshwater per person per year, which indicates adequate water availability.
- Regions in Africa and Southeast Asia face economic water scarcity
Water Crisis
- 785 million people worldwide lack access to water and inadequate sanitation is a problem for 2.4 billion people.
- Exposure to diseases (i.e. Cholera and typhoid fever, other water-borne illnesses)
- By 2025, ½ of world's population may face water shortages
Water Footprint
- Water Footprint measures of direct and indirect water use: total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by an individual or community
- All human activities use water, resulting in water consumption
Solutions to water crisis
- Solutions to water crisis/stress (Sustainable development): UNWDR 3, 2009 (Conserving, developing resources and allocation)
- Rainwater Harvesting is collection and storage of rain which can be collected from a roof like surface redirected to a tank.
- Reservoirs can also collect rainwater and ponds for rainwater harvesting.
Water recycling and re-use
- Water recycling and re-use can be used for urban and agricultural irrigation, recreational and environmental use, groundwater recharge, industrial use, or portable reuse.
Water Reclamation
- Water Reclamation involves reusing of water that reclaims water from a range of different sources.
- Water is purified for reuse in order to treat wastewater to appropriate standards as well as impose crop restrictions on use of reclaimed water.
Price of water
- Consumer attitudes and behaviours are a problem when determining the price of water
Economic incentives to conserve water
- Economic incentives in the form of water-use metering and implementation of tariff systems can help discourage wasteful use of water
- However, this can potentially disadvantage those who can't afford it since there are too many people and not enough water
- Asian and African countries will have to adopt new practices for more efficient use of water
- US Census Bureau (2011) shows that global water use and global population per cent growth since 1900 has increased by 90% in 2025
- Water withdrawals have increased from about 500 cubic kilometres in 1900 to about 3,830 cubic kilometres in 2000
Water related hazards
- Water related hazards include floods and drought
- Salinization of soils happen when evaporation leaves salts behind; if the content of salt in soil is too high, plants cannot grow
- Subsidence (Unsustainable groundwater extraction, sinking of land)
Ions in Natural Waters and Drinking Waters
- Bicarbonate, HCO3- & Calcium, Ca2+ are most abundant ions in unpolluted waters with Calcium found in 2:1 ratio.
- Magnesium ion, Mg2+., Sulfate, SO42-, Chloride, Cl-, Sodium, Na+, Fluoride, F-, and Potassium, K+ are also present.
- REMEMBER: Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium
Groundwater
- Groundwater (aka. Fresh water underground) is water located beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formation
- 97% of all liquid freshwater on the Earth is groundwater which comprises of 50% of drinking water in the US
- 30% of all streamflow charged by groundwater
- Groundwater fills up spaces between soil, sand, rocks (the area is called “zone of saturation")
Aquifer
- An aquifer is a water-bearing layer of porous soil or rock that can yield significant amounts of water to wells
- Exists in the "Zone of Saturation"
Types of Aquifers
- There are Unconfined and Confined Aquifers
Unconfined Aquifers
- Unconfined Aquifers are Top/ near surface and the water is in direct contact with the atmosphere through porous material.
- The water source receives water from the surface
- The surface of the water table can fluctuate up and down based on recharge (water entering) and discharge (water leaving) rates
Confined Aquifers
- Confined Aquifers are Bottom, Impermeable layer that is separated from the atmosphere by an impermeable layer.
- Groundwater is under high pressure
- Water in a well can rise to a level higher than the water level at the top of the aquifer due to this pressure
Groundwater Pollution
- Very cold with Low dissolved oxygen
- No bacterial breakdown which results in Slow water movement
- Pollutants can stick to rocks in aquifer and pollute new water
- Groundwater Pollution comes from Landfills, Leaky underground storage tanks, Mines, Septic tanks, Hazardous waste and any pollutant in runoff that percolates
- Types of contaminants include inorganic and organic contaminants
Types of Inorganic Contaminants
- Salts
- Nitrate
- Ammonia
- Heavy metals
Types of Organic Contaminants
- Volatiles
- Semi-volatiles
- Dissolved
- Non-Aqueous
Water Pollution in China
- Many lakes and major rivers are severely polluted
- Only 50% of China's 200 major rivers are safe for drinking water after treatment
- Over 300 million people depend on unsafe drinking water sources
- Water-related diseases from pollution cost China 2% of its rural GDP
Alkalinity
- Alkalinity is the capability of water to neutralize acid and the buffering capacity is resistant to pH changes
- Common natural buffer (Carbonates i.e. Limestone) protects aquatic life and is commonly linked to water hardness
Hard Water and Hardness Index
- Hard water contains high concentration of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. Soft water contains few of these dissolved ions
- Hardness = [Ca2+] + [Mg2+] and is expressed in parts per million of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) by mass
Types of Water Hardness
- There are Temporary and Permanent Water Hardness
Temporary Hardness (Carbonate Hardness)
- Temporary Hardness is caused by Calcium Carbonate
- Definition: Caused by solid deposits like calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
- Reaction: Calcium carbonate reacts with water and carbon dioxide to release calcium ions (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3¯).
- Boiling water removes this hardness since the dissolved carbon dioxide decreases with heat
- Effects: Causes deposits in pipes and scale buildup in boilers
- Treatment: Temporary hard water must be softened before entering boilers, hot-water tanks, or cooling systems
Permanent Hardness (Non-Carbonate Hardness)
- Permanent Hardness is where Metal ions cannot be removed by boiling
- Definition: Caused by metal ions that cannot be removed by boiling and no solid deposits are formed.
- Total Hardness = Temporary + Permanent Hardness
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
- DO is the Measurement of oxygen dissolved in water and the Amount of oxygen in water correlates to the vitality of the aquatic life.
- Available for fish and other aquatic life the DO indicates health of an aquatic system
- It can range from 0-18 ppm (parts per million) with the Most natural water systems requiring 5-6 ppm to support a diverse population
- DO is affected by Temperature, Pressure, Salts, and Organic matter
Hypoxia
- Hypoxia refers to an aquatic system that lacks dissolved oxygen and is often termed anaerobic, reducing, or anoxic
- Oxygen Levels is characterized by low oxygen concentrations, typically between 1-30% saturation in these categories:
- Hypoxic where there are low oxygen levels, and Dysoxic where there are very low oxygen levels but not completely absent
Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico
- Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico is caused by Pollution and eutrophication leading to phytoplankton blooms.
- Phytoplankton increases dissolved oxygen (DO) through photosynthesis during the day.
- But at night, they consume oxygen through respiration, reducing DO saturation
- When phytoplankton cells die, they sink to the bottom and decompose, which further reduces dissolved oxygen in the water column
Organic/Biological Species in Water
- Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) tells us how much oxygen is needed by microorganisms to break down organic material in water
- Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measures the amount of organic compounds in water and everything that can be chemically oxidized
- Total Organic Carbon (TOC) measures the total amount of carbon from the organic material dissolved or suspended in water
- Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) is a portion of total organic carbon dissolved in water
- If you subtract TOC - DOC This helps helps understand different forms of organic material in water
Measure Turbidity
- Turbidity is measured with NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units; a Measurement of amount of light passing through the sample water column
- It is measured using a Nephelometer with the detector set up to the side of the light beam
- Clear water has Low turbidity, where as contaminated water has high turbidity caused by Dirt, construction, pollutants etc. = high turbidity.
- It affects Aquatic animals health and hinders growth rates of aquatic animals by decreasing aquatic plants ability to photosynthesize
Conductivity
- Conductivity measures the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical current
- It is expressed in Siemens per meter
- In water, conductivity determined by types and quantities of dissolved solids (Total Dissolved Solids = TDS): Combined content of all inorganic and organic substances in water with Current carried by ions (Negatively or positively charged particles)
Salinity
- Salinity measures the Saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water
- It influences the types of organisms living in a body of water, but salt is expensive to remove from water
- The degree of salinity is a driver of the world's ocean circulation contributing to global changes in CO2 as more saline waters are less soluble to carbon dioxide
- There are waters with high salinity, such as Brine water and Saline water, or low salinity known as Brackish water and Freshwater
Oil pollution
- Oil pollution is crude and refined petroleum that occurs on ocean and land
- Caused by tanker accidents or accidents such as Exxon Valdez and Urban and industrial runoff
Effects of Oil Pollution on Ocean Ecosystems
- Effects include Volatile organic hydrocarbons, which Kill larvae and Destroy natural insulation and buoyancy
- Heavy oil Sinks and kills bottom organisms, damaging coral reefs
Oil Cleanup Methods
- Current methods recover no more than 15% using Surface Dispersants
- There are also Underwater dispersants which causes the organic chemicals to break down the oil into smaller droplets and more readily to mix with water
Air Composition
- Composition of the Atmosphere (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon = NOA) with these ratios: Nitrogen (N2) = 0.78 = 78.08%, Oxygen (O2) = 0.21 = 20.95%, and Argon (Ar) = 0.0093 = 0.93%
- The atmospheric Layers (Temperature and other characteristics vary with altitude) with these layers in order:
- Thermosphere (up to 500km)
- Mesosphere
- Stratosphere (Ozone concentration, Ozone layer)
- Troposphere
- Note: Tropopause Marks the boundary between troposphere and stratosphere
Air Composition and Air Quality
- Air: O2 + N2 (Human breathable) with the Atmosphere being the Layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body
- Air Quality measures the condition of air relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose
- An Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used to show how polluted the air it currently is or how polluted it is forecast to be. Different countries have different AQIs are developed by the EPA which was formalized under the Clean Air Act (1990)
Air Pollutants
- Sources of Air Pollutants: Natural Sources can come from Dust storms, Volcanoes and Fires or Human-caused (Anthropogenic Sources) from Stationary, or Mobile sources as well as Controlled burn fires and Landfills as well as landfill gases
Primary and Secondary Pollutants
- Primary Air pollutant emitted DIRECTLY from a source, Secondary NOT DIRECTLY emitted
Soil
- Soil is “The skin of Earth”, Natural covering formed throughout ages by forces of nature
- It is formed through acting upon native rocks and vegetation; ALL life is dependent on soil's productivity
- Soil thickness reflects the balance between rates of soil production and rates of downslope soil movement
Soil Formation
- Soil is Formed through breakdown of organisms (Types of native vegetation, production of humic acids, increase of erosion), Time (Development and destruction of soil horizons), Parent Material (Starting point of soil development), Topography (Ground slope, elevation, aspect i.e. north/south facing slopes), and Climate (Temperature and precipitation, weathering rates)
Soil texture and Land
- Soil Texture indicates the percentage of sand, slit, and clay and is Related to water flow potential, water holding capacity, fertility potential, etc.,
- Loam is Soil of approximately equal amounts of sand, slit, and clay and Land is the Solid, dry surface of earth
- Land = 29.2% of Earth's surface almost entirely covered by regolith: A layer of rock, soil, and minerals that form the outer part of the crust, and half is covered in trees
- Another third is used for agriculture 10% is covered in permanent snow and glaciers
- Land Cover is material physically present on land surface that can can be classified as land use, for allocation for human activities
- Terrain is the Shape and features of land (Height, steepness, direction)
Landforms
- Landforms are elevation, slope, and orientation, categorized as Natural/Artificial feature on the surface of the Earth while a Landscape is Part of Earth's surface related to nature or human
Natural Land Resources
- Natural Land Resources includes Forest, Water, Land, Mineral, Food, and Energy
Land Pollution
- Land Pollution is deterioration of Earth's land surface at below ground level that can be Caused by accumulation of solid and liquid waste materials that contaminate groundwater and soil as well as Affects soil on the Earth, and habitats
How Humans Contribute to Land Pollution
- Humans Contributes to pollution of air and water as well as introduce Global warming gases such as methane
- The main contributors of Land Pollution are Waste, Urbanization, Construction, Mining, Extraction, and Agriculture while Litter contributes too.
Land degradation
- Land Degradation is the human causes of Land Degradation, where degraded land occurs by the Process where the value of biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land
- While there are Natural hazards UN exclude them as a cause by stating that ~30% of land is degraded worldwide of which ~3.2 billion people reside
How Humans Cause Land degradation
- Humans cause Land Degradation via Poor farming practices by Overgrazing and Overdrafting livestock via Deforestation and Clearcutting which can be mitigated by changes in climate
Consequences of Land Degradation
- There is a general Decline in productive capacity of land, and Loss of capacity to provide resources for human lives
- All leading to a Loss of biodiversity and Shifting ecological risk
Desertification
- Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands
- Biological productivity is lost due to natural processes/human activities, leading to Fertile areas becoming increasingly invariable, posing a Significant global ecological and environmental problem which is caused by a Loss of vegetation due to Climate shifts as well as Overgrazing and Deforestation
Climate and Geography
- Climate and Geography define specific biomes such as “Horse Latitude’s” where Deserts are created by descending cold, dry air masses, or Orographic deserts occurring on the downwind sides of major mountains. Polar Deserts are found under ice cap climates.
- Desertification is defined as a place where the aridity index (AI) > 4 for Arid environments that are dry due to lack of rain
How Aridity is Measured
- Aridity can be quantified by calculating an Aridity Index (Aridity VS Humidity), where High equals Arid, and a Low equals Humid air
Woody Plant Encroachment
- Woody Plant Encroachment are where Exogenic Drivers of trees and bushes spread can contribute towards areas that historically had grass or open soil
- Regional and global warming improve plant growth conditions, and Overgrazing means Grass reduces allowing trees/bushes to grow, as well as Increased CO2 in the atmosphere
Managing Plant Encroachment
- Managing Plant Encroachment is accomplished by controlling Internal Factors, such as Fire-vegetation dynamics and Soil erosion
China's Solution to Woody Plant Encroachment
- China sought to solve Woody Plant Encroachment through the installation of Green Walls along areas susceptible to desertification by the use of major ecological engineering projects. Proposed in late 1970s and Not predicted to end until 2055, China has Placed > 66 billion trees along the country and saw Decreased desert land in China by (1,980 square km annually) and decrease of sandstorm rate by > 20%
Other Efforts to Stop Desertification
- The Green Wall of Africa was erected to restore land that had been desertified from various processes caused by climate change Started 2007 to combat desertification in 20 countries, creating an 8,000 km path as well as restoring 36 million hectares of land
- Ultimately they set a Goal to restore a total of 100 million hectares in Africa by 2030
Managing the Restoration Process
- In order to keep deserts at bay soil is reconditioned through Provisioning of water, and Fixation of soil by Adding nitrogen enrichment as well as Contour trenching
- Ecosystems vary in size:
- Coral reef ecosystem, an example of marine ecosystems
- Temperate forest ecosystem, an example of terrestrial ecosystems
Managed Grazing
- Grazing serves as tool to reverse desertification by Managing the biomes through a Ecosystem, which is the physical environments in which they interact to Consist of all organisms in the area
- Organism is any living thing, and is the simplest level of life, which is organized into a Species
- Species organize into Populations, which organize into Communities
Abiotic Factors
- A biomes’ factors of organization are affected by Abiotic components in the area which are Linked through nutrient cycles and energy flows determined to allow organisms to live in each area
Habitats
- Habitats supply all of the biotic and abiotic factors an organism needs to survive; namely the Habitant supplies basic needs such as Air, warmth, water, and food
Habitats vs Niche and Biodiversity
- Niches are what is considered the behavior of how organisms act, which is the role of how it affects the Ecosystem
- the variety of life in the world, or in a particular habitat or ecosystem, is this creates Biodiversity
Spheres of life
- Large areas sharing are related given that each are in similar climate and topography
Biomes and the Spheres
- Temperature and precipitation are the most important determinants in biome distribution on land as many share latitudinal bands
The components needed for life
- Lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are the names for these 3 components in the Biosphere
- Lithosphere (Land)
- Hydrosphere (Water)
- Atmosphere (Air)
Terrestrial Ecosystems: Forest is Land with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10% and area of more than 0.5 ha where the Trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5m at maturity.
Areas where Trees can or cannot grow
- Trees DO NOT include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
Unideal conditions where Trees may be found
- Land with a canopy cover of 5-10% of trees able to reach a height of 5m; a canopy cover of more other plants may be used as Other wooded land in Any land not classified as forest
Top producers of land in The World
- Russian Federation = largest forest area, almost 20% of the world, as well as Brazil
Forest types
- Natural (Primary) Forests have ONLY native tree species with No disturbances, whereas Secondary Forests use Native regeneration
Deciduous Forests
- Deciduous Forests are Dominant with trees that drop their leaves for each season. They're found in tropical regions in Summer and can be Broadleafs and can contain trees that make seeds from the ground as a food source
Tropical Forests vs Coniferous Forests
- Tropical Forests have <10% of land surface, as well as Coniferous Forests are from Taiga and have needle and scale-like leaves and has no trees
Mixed Forests
- Mixed
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