Computer History: Generations and Key Components

Computers

• A computer is a general-purpose device that can be programmed to carry out arithmetic or logical operations.
• A computer is an electronic device or machine and the hardware of a computer system.
• Instructions or programs control computers, defining how to process data and information.
• This set of instructions is the software of a computer system
• A computer system is composed of hardware, software, and a user.

Early Computers and Precomputers

• These existed before approximately 1945.
• Examples include: abacus, slide rule, mechanical calculator, Hollerith's Punch Card Tabulating Machine and Sorter.

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

• These were powered by vacuum tubes
• They were generally huge in size.
• Examples include: ENIAC and UNIVAC.

Second Generation Computers (1950-1963)

• Used transistors
• Mainframe computers were included
• Larger size than first genetation

Third Generation Computers (1964-1970)

• Integrated circuits (IC) were used.
• These were intermediate in size
• These consumed very little electricity
• These included mainframe and minicomputers.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1984)

• Microprocessors were used (VLSI design with tens of thousands of transistors).
• Computers ranged from supercomputers to personal devices
• Were smaller in size with greater reliability
• Increased capacity substantially

Fifth Generation Computers (1983-1990)

• Ultra large-scale integration (ULSI) technology was introduced
• This generation involved artificial intelligence (AI), parallel processing and distributed systems, robotics, and voice recognition.

Sixth Generation Computers (1990-present)

• Massive parallel architectures, vector processors, and networking technology are involved.

Future Computers

• Optical
• Quantum
• Biological
• Nano-computers

Hardware components

• This is the tangible, physical equipment that can be seen and touched
• There are six major hardware components: processor, memory, input devices, output devicesstorage devices, communication devices

The Processor

• The processor controls actions and processes data
• Coordinates how other hardware devices work together
• Interpets and executes program instructions
• Also known as the central processing unit (CPU).

CPU Clock Speed

• Megahertz (MHz) is millions of cycles per second.
• Gigahertz (GHz) is billions of cycles per second.

Memory

• This is the working place for the CPU.
• It can store instructions and data temporarily or permanently.
• The minimum unit that can be processed in a computer system is a bit which is either a 0 or 1
• Eight bits form a byte (8 bits).
• The unit for the capacity of memory is byte.
• Each byte of data is stored in a location with a unique address.

Unit Conversions

• 1 KB (kilobytes) = 2^10= 1024 bytes
• 1 MB (megabytes) = 2^20 = 1024 x 1024 bytes
• 1 GB (gigabytes) = 2^30 = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes
• 1 TB (terabytes) = 2^40 = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes

RAM

Stands for Random Access Memory, and it is also known as the main memory.

• Any location in RAM can be accessed within the same amount of time, thus "random access".
• It is normally volatile, meaning that the data is erased when the power is off.
• All programs, instructions, or data used must be loaded into RAM by the CPU.
• RAM is very fast compared with other storage devices, which allows more RAM to give your CPU more fast working place and better computer performance.

ROM

• Stands for Read-Only Memory.
• ROM stores data permanently, and cannot be modified or erased while RAM allows both read and write operations.
• It is normally non-volatile.
• ROMs are used to store data or instructions that do not need to be changed often.
• The Basic Input and Output System (BIOS) handles basic I/O operations, like receiving keypresses or displaying characters.

Memory: Random-access memory (RAM)

• Stores temporary information when you are working in a file/program
• Used when you start and use software.
• Data will be lost when power is turned off or rebooting

Memory: Read-only memory (ROM)

• Stores permanent information, e.g. BIOS to boot up the system.
• Used when you turn on a computer on or off.
• Data is stored permanently in ROM

CPU Cache

• Another kind of memory used by the CPU
• Faster than RAM
• "Closer" to the CPU than RAM to improve computer performance
• Store the most frequently used data/instructions in a faster place.

Input Devices

• Input devices receive input from users.
• Examples: mouse, graphic tablet, keyboard, touchscreen, scanner, digital camera, microphone, magnetic card encoder and reader, or voice recognition system.

Output Devices

• Output devices are used for producing output to users.
• Examples: Monitor, speaker, projector, printer.
• Laser printers and inkjet printers are the two most common types of printers.

Storage

• Storage is used for storing data or information.
• Examples: Hard disks optical discs memory cards USB flash drives or magnetic tapes.

Hard Drives: HDD

• Spins with a mechanical arm, writing and rewriting information on the drive platter in different sectors.
• Susceptible to sudden power loss, electric surges, and high levels of magnetism.

Hard Drives: SSD

• No moving parts inside it.
• Less likely to fail or experience damage due to movement, wear, and tear.
• More reliable than HDD and have a longer life.
• Functions at a higher speed than HDD since it can randomly access data at any time while HDD's read/write arm must reach the right sector of the rotating platter.
• It saves information to microchips, similar to flash drives
• SSD is a better choice when is concerned with a fast boot-up & quick performance for tasks such as photo/video editing & rendering
• More expensive than Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• If multiple hard drives are supported, users may consider installing system & applications on an SSD & use a second HDD with greater storage capacity for the project files.

Communication devices

• Used for communicating with other computers.
• Routers
• Switches

Other Components

• To build a computer additional parts are needed apart from the six components.
• The internal components and parts are integrated into a piece called the system unit that is protected by a metal or plastic case.
• Different kinds of computers have different sizes and shapes of the system units.

System Unit Components

• Motherboard to host and connect internal components
• Ports to connect external devices (peripherals)
• Buses to transmit signals
• Power supply to provide power

Motherboard

• The motherboard is the main circuit board of the system unit.
• It provides the electrical/logical connections that allows for good communication.
• Other computer components are either built into or connected to it.

Adapter Cards

• Add functionalities to PCs.
• Special functional or I/O devices in the form of adapter or expansion cards.
• Attached through expansion slots on motherboard
• Examples: display cards, sound cards, TV tuner/capture cards, network cards.
• Many functionalities are integrated into the motherboard so adapter cards may not be needed.

GPU

• A Graphics Processing Unit is a specialized processor designed to accelerate graphics rendering and parallel computing tasks.
• It handles thousands of operations simultaneously; making it ideal for rendering images and video
• It is essential for gaming, video editing, and 3D modeling
• Nvidia GeForce RTX 4090 and AMD Radeon RX 7900 XTX are examples of graphic processing units

NPU (Neural Processing Unit)

• Specialized microprocessor for accelerating Al and machine learning tasks.
• Enhances performance and efficiency in AI applications.
• Optimized for parallel processing, faster and more energy-efficient than CPUs and GPUs
• Has low latency: real-time processing for applications, like voice recognition and augmented reality.
• Improves camera functions and voice assistants in smartphones
• Processes sensor data for navigation in autonomous vehicles
• Assists in medical imaging analysis in healthcare
• Improves performance for faster and more accurate Al workloads & extends battery life.
• Examples: Qualcomm Hexagon NPU, Google Edge TPU, Huawei Ascend NPU, Khadas VIM3 NPU.

Copilot+ PC

• A typical specification includes: A compatible processor or System on a Chip (SoC), Minimum of 16 GB DDR5/LPDDR5 RAM, at least 256 GB SSD/UFS Storage capacity, Neural Processing Unit (NPU): Capable of performing 40+ trillion operations per second (TOPS), a battery Life that varies by model but has demonstrated the capacity to last up to 27 hours on a single charge & Enhanced Al capabilities like automatic super resolution, live captions, Paint Cocreator, and Windows Studio Effects.

Ports and Connectors

• They are needed to connect external devices (peripherals).
• The system unit (motherboard) provides many kinds of ports and connectors.

Ports and Connectors: USB

• Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a type of interface between a computer and other devices.
• USB 3.1 has a max rate of 10Gbit/s

Ports and Connectors: HDMI

• High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) transfers digital video/audio data at max. rate 18Gbit/s.

Ports and Connectors: IrDA

• Infrared Data Association (IrDA) does wireless data transfer through infrared to a max rate of 1Gbit/s.

Ports and Connectors: Bluetooth

• Does wireless data transfer with radio technology to a rate of 24Mbit/s.

Ports and Connectors: WiFi

• WiFi: local area wireless computer network for electronic devices
• Popular application is wireless access point for Internet connection. 802.11ad at max rate 7Gbit/s

Software

• Software are intangible sets of instructions prepared by users that instructs a computer what to do and how to do it.
• The two kinds of software: system software and application software.

Software: System software

• Handles tasks related to the system itself.
• This includes resource allocation, maintaince, and protecting the system.

Software: Application software

• Handles tasks related to users' interests, data processing tasks related to users' work or school, scientific computation, entertainment, or communication

Software Distribution

• Packaged Software: Mass-produced and for retail
• Custom Software: Tailor-made for a business or industry.
• Open Source/Freeware: Freely available, and open-source software comes with source code that enables users can modify and redistribute.
• Software is copyrighted and have a certain license except public-domain software which is non-copyrighted

BIOS

• Stands for Basic Input Output System.
• It is firmware
• All motherboards need a firmware to operate.
• Some aspects can be configured by the user.
• Information can be provided about the Installed Hardware.

Operating Systems

• It is a set of programs containing instructions that work together to coordinate all the activities among computer hardware resources.

Operating Systems Types

• DOS (Disk Operating System) was developed in the 1980s, for IBM compatible PC.
• MS Windows family includes: 3.x, NT, 95, 98, Me, Server 2000, XP, Server 2003, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows 11.
• Apple's macOS (Sonoma, Sequoia)
• Unix/Linux is powerful, but not suitable for beginners.
• Linux is one of the most famous open source available for many different kinds of computer systems.
• Network OS (Netware and Solaris) and those for mobile devices such as Android and iOS.

Operating Systems: Functions

• Provides user interfaces
• Provides management functions
• Maintenance of a device driver system
• Provides a set of utility programs

Operating Systems - User Interfaces

• A user interface defines how users can use their computers in terms of input/output.
• Two common kinds of interfaces are: Command Line Interface (CLI) and Graphical User Interface (GUI)
• In a command line interface, commands are typed or special keys are pressed to enter data/instructions
• A graphical user interface uses a pointing device like a mouse to interact with visual images (buttons) to issue commands.
• In recent years, GUIs are more common and popular than CLIs

Operating Systems - Management Functions

• Modern computers usually allow multiple users to run multiple programs at the same time (multitasking).
• The OS must provide program management so that programs can share resources like the CPU.
• Memory management handles the use of the RAM so each program can have enough memory
• User management maintains user accounts and controls user activities.

Operating Systems - Device Driver

• A device driver is a set of programs that tells the OS how to operate the hardware.
• Maintain network connection, allow the user to share resources on the network and provide protection.

Operating Systems - Utilities

• An OS also provides a set of utility programs for sytem related tasks.
• Disk utilities manage the Hard Disks and detect/fix errors.
• Uninstallers, diagnostic utility, backup and restore utility, screen saver, or firewall

Application Software

• Can make users be more productive in Business related software ie-Word processing, spreadsheets, & databases., Multimedia & Graphic Software such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) & publishing. Home/Personal/Educational software includes personal home software & entertainment programs. Has Communications Software such as Instant Messaging & Blogging programs.

Explore the evolution of computers from pre-1945 devices to the third generation. Learn about key components like vacuum tubes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Understand the fundamental differences between computer hardware and software with important historical milestones.