Biochemistry, Cell Biology, and Microbiology

Biochemistry, Cell Biology, and Microbiology

• Covalent and non-covalent bonds are vital in biochemistry.
• Water, acids, bases, buffers, and pH are foundational concepts.
• Stoichiometric calculations use molarity, molality, and normality.
• Thermodynamics is key to biochemical processes.
• Good laboratory practice is essential.
• Biomolecules have specific structures and functions.
• Metabolism includes carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, regulated by hormones.
• Membranes have structure and function, including action potentials and transport.
• Cell structure differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Cell division, the cell cycle, and cell signaling are important.
• Taxonomy and diversity define microbes like bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
• Microbial nutrition, growth, and metabolism are critical.
• Host-microbe interactions are important, including mode of action and antibiotic resistance.
• Microbial genetics involves spontaneous and induced mutations.
• DNA damage and repair mechanisms are vital.
• Genetic recombination in bacteria occurs via conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
• Microscopy relies on basic principles.

Molecular Biology and Immunology

• Nucleic acids, DNA replication, protein synthesis, and gene expression regulation are foundational.
• Gene expression is regulated in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Recombinant DNA technology includes DNA libraries, PCR, and blotting.
• Gene sequencing, gene silencing, and genome editing are important tools.
• Signal transduction pathways are studied and elucidated.
• Innate and adaptive immunity involve cells like phagocytes, B cells, and T cells.
• Antibody molecules are play crucial roles, and antigen processing and presentation are crucial.
• Monoclonal antibodies are significant, and autoimmunity and hypersensitivity are studied.
• Hematopoiesis is the formation of blood cells.
• Immunoglobulin structure, types, and functions are essential.
• Antigen-antibody interactions cause hypersensitivity reactions and autoimmune disorders.
• MHC molecules have specific structures and functions.
• Monoclonal antibodies and vaccine technology are areas of focus.
• Cell culture technologies are used in regenerative medicine and transplantation.
• Biosafety and animal ethics are crucial, including reducing animal use.
• Human experiments require clearances and follow research methodology.

Statistics and Bioinformatics

• Measures of central tendency and dispersion are used in statistics.
• Probability and statistics involve mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
• Probability distributions include binomial, Poisson, and normal.
• Sampling distribution and parametric/non-parametric statistics are used.
• Confidence intervals, errors, and significance levels are vital.
• Regression, correlation, t-tests, ANOVA, multiple range tests, and chi-square tests are used.
• Experimental design and data transformation are important.
• Sequence analysis involves algorithms, multiple sequence alignment, and phylogeny.
• Biological databases store DNA and protein information.
• Structure prediction and visualization tools, docking, and molecular modeling are utilized.
• Systems Biology and Linux Operation System basics are components.
• Data mining and analytical tools are utilized for genomics and proteomics studies.

Bioprocess Technology and Analytical Techniques

• Enzyme kinetics and immobilization are important.
• Bioreactors vary in type and scale.
• Transport phenomena influence bioprocessing.
• Media design and optimization are used for fermentation.
• Sterilization kinetics are essential.
• Fermenter description and engineering principles are important.
• Upstream and downstream processing are key.
• Bioprocess design and development involve scale-up operations.
• Microbial production includes primary and secondary metabolites.
• Environmental biotechnology addresses pollution, bioremediation, and biodegradation.
• Spectroscopy uses Beer-Lambert Law, Stokes shift, IR, NMR, and mass spectrometry.
• Chromatography includes HPLC, HPTLC, GC, and hyphenated techniques.
• TGA, DTA, DSC, and XRD are thermal analysis methods.
• Electrophoresis and microarray analysis are used.

Plant and Animal Biotechnology

• Totipotency and regeneration are key.
• Plant growth regulators and elicitors are used in tissue culture.
• Cell suspension culture systems produce secondary metabolites.
• Transgenic plants are created.
• Animal cell culture includes media composition and growth conditions.
• Animal cells and tissues are preserved, and anchorage-dependent/independent cell cultures are used.
• Kinetics of cell growth and hybridoma technology are essential.
• Stem cell technology is used.
• Industrial biotechnology focuses on strain improvement for metabolite overproduction.
• Medium formulation, optimization, and sterilization are crucial.
• Biological waste treatment processes are applied.
• Bioreactors vary, volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficients, and ideal/non-ideal flow models are used.
• Downstream processing involves cell disruption, solid-liquid separation, precipitation, extraction, and membrane-based separation.
• Purification and chromatographic techniques are used.
• Animal cell culture includes primary culture, cell line nomenclature, subculture, and routine maintenance.
• Cell characterization involves cytotoxicity assays and cell quantitation.
• Cell culture contamination is monitored and eradicated.
• Cryopreservation and confocal microscopy are important.
• Stem cell culture and its applications are studied.

Additional Molecular and Cellular Biology Concepts

• Molecules control cell cycle, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
• Ultrastructure includes cellular organelles: Mitochondria, ER, Golgi, Chloroplast, plasma membrane, centriole, nuclear and membrane-bound receptors.
• Techniques of propagation of prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells, Autocrine, Paracrine and Endocrine models of action are investigated, as well Cell line, generation of cell lines.
• DNA and histone molecules are structured.
• Replication of eukaryotic chromosomes, nucleoid the complex replication apparatus, process of transcription, Structure of tRNA, mRNA, rRNA, Deciphering of the genetic code, Translation, Mutation is performed.
• Reverse transcription, Methods for analysis of gene expression at RNA and protein level, micro array, DNA chips. PCR, RFLP, Southern and Northern blotting, AFLP techniques, Real- time PCR, In situ localization, FISH and GISH are developed.
• Study of Mendelian genetics is done.
• Types of genetic disorders like chromosomal disorders, single gene disorders, multifactorial disorders, mitochondrial disorders, Pedigree analysis, Human chromosomal syndromes- variation in chromosome number, Variation in chromosome structure, Molecular basis of inborn error of metabolism, Molecular basis of cancer are studied.
• Performing Prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling, Eugenics and Population genetics is done.
• The general principles of cloning, Genetic elements that control gene expression, method of creating recombinant DNA molecules, creating transgenic animals, plants microbes, safety guidelines of creating recombinant DNA research restriction enzymes and mapping of DNA, plasmid and phage and other vectors are investigated.
• The Construction of genomic and cDNA libraries, methods of nucleic acid extraction are investigated along side Transformation, Patents and methods of application of patents.
• Study of Ecosystems, energy flow, ecological succession and pollution.
• The Bioremediation, Conventional and Non-conventional sources of energy and Biogeo chemical cycles is done.
• The study of Biodiversity and wild life conservation, Social issues and the environment is done.
• Study of Biological databases, File formats, sequence alignment, Database searches, phylogenetic tree construction and validation.
• Homology modeling, Drug discovery, DNA mapping and sequencing, sequence assembly and gene prediction, molecular predictions with DNA strings, Visualization tolls are investigated.