Belief Systems: Buddhism, History and Impact

• The rise of new states and the growth of long-distance trade occur following the collapse of classical civilization and interactions.
• Most events are connected to religion.

Key Points

• Most belief systems still impact history.
• Major religions have divisions, subgroups, and sects.
• A vital component involves understanding belief systems' theological basis and their impact on social, political, cultural, and military developments.
• Determining the origin and spread of belief systems and cultural interactions is essential.
• Religious Mysticism involves adherents focusing on mystical experiences to bring them closer to prayer and meditation.

Buddhism

• The cultures are India, China, Southeast Asia, and Japan.
• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince in Nepal from 563-483 BCE, rejected wealth and became Buddha.
• There is no supreme being, emphasizing the Four Noble Truths.
• The Four Noble Truths state that all life is suffering, suffering is caused by desire, one can be freed from desire, and one can be freed from desire by following a prescribed path.
• The death of Buddha in 483 BCE split Buddhism into Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.
• Theravada Buddhism promotes meditation, simplicity, and nirvana as renunciation of self.
• Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes great ritual and spiritual comfort, more complex but with greater spread.
• The impact rejects the caste system and appealed to those of lower rank.
• Buddhism was reabsorbed in Hinduism in India.
• Buddhism continued to thrive in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
• It spread via trade routes.

Christianity

• Encompasses Europe Eastern Africa and the Middle East.
• Started as a group of Jews and quickly expanded through Europe.
• It is based around Jesus of Nazareth, who claimed to be the Messiah.
• It teaches devotion to God and love for others.
• Jesus was crucified around 30 CE, and his followers believed he rose from the dead.
• It is based on Bible teachings.
• Followers believe Jesus is the Son of God, and everlasting life is achievable through forgiveness of sins.
• According to Christianity, the world was created by God but has fallen.
• Believers should seek God, care for him, and show compassion and grace through faith.
• This appealed to lower classes and women.
• Christianity became the most influential religion in the Mediterranean basin by the 3rd century.
• It became the official religion of the Roman Empire, branching north and west.
• Connection with the Roman Empire had a profound impact on global culture.

Confucianism

• Cultures: China (400 BCE+)
• Founded by Confucius, educator and political advisor of thoughts and sayings collected in the Analects
• Focuses on restoring political and social order rather than philosophical or religious topics.
• 5 fundamental relationships build society in order, (1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling, (5) friend and friend
• Compatible with other religions, causing it to flourish.
• Led to China's culture of tight-knit communities and stayed within Chinese culture.

Hinduism

• Cultures: India
• Belief in one supreme force, Brahma, who created everything - manifested in gods Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer)
• Believers must merge with Brahma, taking multiple lives to accomplish and living to determine their next life
• Follow dharma (rules and obligation of caste), moving towards Brahma - moksha is highest stake of being (internal peace and release of soul).
• Vedas and Upanishads guide Hindus without a sacred text
• The religion and social caste system prevented total global acceptance.
• Recently, Hindus are rebelling against the caste system.
• It spawned Buddhism.

Islam

• Cultures: caliphates (Islamic kingdoms), North Africa, central Asia, Europe
• 7th Century: Muslims are the believers
• Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, whose words were recorded in the Qur'an
• Believers achieve salvation through submission to God - 5 Pillars of Islam (1) confession, (2) prayer 5 times a day, (3) charity, (4) fasting during Ramadan, (5) pilgrimage to Mecca
• Differing opinions on who should succeed Muhammad led to 2 groups: Shia and Sunni
• Impact: spread through the Middle East

Judaism

• Cultures: Hebrews
• Selected as a holy group of people who should follow laws and worship
• Maintains a unique relationship with God
• World for them to enjoy freely- destiny of the world is paradise
• Hebrew Bible guides through Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry, prophecies
• Impact: first of major monotheistic faiths

Developments in the Middle East

• Islamic Empire from 750-1258 CE; early-mid 9th century was a golden age
• The capital was in Baghdad (modern-day Iraq)
• Served as centre for arts and sciences - mathematics (Nasir al-Din al Tusi), medicine, writings (House of Wisdom library)
• Built around trade and used receipt and billing system

Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions

• Challenged by enslaved Turkish warriors' revolt, new Shia dynasty in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines
• Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258
• Ottoman Turks reunited Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in new Islamic state until 1918
• The Mamluks, an Egyptian group, defeated Mongols in Nazareth, preserving Islam in the Near East.

Developments in Europe

• Middle Ages: fall of Rome before Renaissance
• Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire
• Christianity remained strong in Western Europe as it collapsed entirely
• European Feudalism: Land Divided
• Feudalism: European hierarchy social system

Feudal European Society

• The King had power over the whole kingdom.
• Nobles had power over sections of the kingdom for loyalty to the king and military service.
• Vassals: lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could divide it further. Their estates were named fiefs or manors
• Founded three-field system: 3 fields for fall, spring, and empty one to replenish nutrients.
• Conflict between lords was regulated with code of chivalry, which condemned betrayal and promoted mutual respect.
• Male dominated: women could not own land, and land was passed to the eldest son (primogeniture). Their education was limited to domestic skills.
• Peasants or Serfs worked the land and had few rights or freedoms outside of the manor.
• Skilled in trades, which helped them break out of feudal mode as global trade increased and led to the middle class emergence of craftsmen and merchants

Emergence of Nation-States

• At the end of the Middle Ages, people moved from feudal kingdoms to linguistic and cultural organizations.
• Achievement of statehood in the 13th century took different paths in different countries.
• Germany: the reigning family of emperorship died out, entering a period of interregnum (time between kings). Merchants and tradespeople became more powerful.
• England: English nobles rebelled against King John and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, reinstating the nobles and laid foundation for Parliament.
• Later divided into the House of Lords (nobles and clergy - legal issues) and the House of Commons (knights and wealth burghers - trade and taxation).
• France: in the 12th century, England began to occupy many parts of France, which spurred revolts - Joan of Arc fought back English out of Orleans.
• Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) unified France, leading to England's withdrawal.
• Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married to unite Spain in a single monarchy and forced all residents to convert to Christianity.
• Russia: taken over by Tartars (group of eastern Mongols) under Genghis Kahn in 1242 until Russian prince Ivan III expanded his power in 1400s and became czar. Ivan the Terrible became a ruthless ruler utilizing secret police in the 1500s.

Developments in Asia

• China and Nearby Regions
• Song Dynasty (960-1279)
• Confucianism justified women's subordination - foot binding bound women's feet after birth to keep them small
• Neo-Confucianism: Buddhist ideas about the soul, filial piety, maintenance of proper roles, and loyalty to superiors
• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): occurred after a brief period of Mongol dominance
• Religion was influenced by Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, and especially Buddhism in two of its forms.
• Mahayana promoted peaceful and quiet existence apart from worldly values.
• Chan or Zen promoted meditation and appreciation of beauty.

Japan

• Remained relatively isolated from external influences outside Asia for many years
• Feudal Japan (1192)

1. Emperor
2. Shogun (chief general)
3. Daimyo: owners of larger pieces of land, powerful samurai (like knights)
4. Follow Code of Bushido code of conduct - loyalty, courage, honour
5. Lesser samurai (like vassals)
6. Peasants and artisans

• Women had little rights and esteem

India

• Delhi Sultanate: Islamic invader kingdom in Delhi
• Islam took over Northern India, leading to a clash between Islam monotheism and Hinduism polytheism.
• Islam rulership brought in colleges and farming improvements
• Rajput Kingdoms: several Hindu principalities united to resist Muslim forces from 1191 until an eventual takeover in 1527.

Southeast Asia

• Religion spread and established different states
• Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand
• Beliefs were carried through the Indian Ocean trade network.
• It crafted the Angkor Wat temple.

Developments in Africa

• Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries, travelled through the Sahara Desert, and reached the wealthy sub-Saharan.
• An explosion of trade began.
• Hausa Kingdoms off Niger River, series of state system kingdoms
• A predominantly Islamic region; long trade achieved economic stability and religious influence (notably the city of Kano).
• Political and economic downturn in 18th century due to internal wars.

Developments in Americas

• Three great civilizations in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs.

Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice

• Arrived in Mexico in the mid-1200s.
• Tenochtitlan: capital city (modern Mexico City)
• Expansionist policy and professional, strict army.
• Empire of 12 million people with flourishing trade; many were enslaved.
• Women were subordinate but could inherit property.

Inca: My Land is Your Land

• Andes Mountains in Peru
• Expansionist - army, established bureaucracy, unified language, system of roads and tunnels
• Many people were peasants
• The capital of Cuzco had almost 300000 people in the late 1400s.
• Women were more important and could pass property to their daughters.
• Polytheistic religion with human sacrifice - the Sun god was most important.
• People were mummified after death.
• The military was very important.
• The Temple of the Sun and Machu Picchu architecture.
• The Mayans