Belief systems and buddhism

Belief Systems in 1200

• Most belief systems continue to impact history.
• Major religions have divisions, subgroups, and sects.
• Understanding the theological basis and impact of belief systems on social, political, cultural, and military developments is crucial.
• Consider the origin, spread, and cultural interactions of belief systems.
• Religious Mysticism focuses on mystical experiences like prayer and meditation to connect with the divine.

Buddhism

• Originated in India, spread to China, Southeast Asia, and Japan.
• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE), who rejected wealth and became the Buddha.
• It does not involve a supreme being.
• The Four Noble Truths outline that life is suffering, caused by desire, and can be overcome by following a prescribed path.
• After Buddha's death (483 BCE), Buddhism split into Theravada and Mahayana.
• Theravada Buddhism emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and achieving nirvana through renunciation.
• Mahayana Buddhism involves ritual, spiritual comfort, and is more complex with wider reach.
• It rejects the caste system, appealing to lower ranks.
• Buddhism was reabsorbed into Hinduism in India, but thrived in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
• It spread via trade routes.

Christianity

• Originated as a Jewish group, expanded through Europe, northeastern Africa, and the Middle East.
• Based on Jesus of Nazareth, who claimed to be the Messiah, teaching devotion to God and love for others.
• Jesus was crucified around 30 CE, with followers believing in his resurrection.
• It is based on Bible teachings.
• Jesus is believed to be the Son of God, offering forgiveness of sins and everlasting life.
• The world was created by God but has fallen from grace.
• Believers should seek God and care for others.
• Compassion and grace through faith attracted lower classes and women.
• Christianity became the most influential religion in the Mediterranean by the 3rd century.
• It became the official religion of the Roman Empire, expanding north and west.
• Its connection with the Roman Empire had a profound impact on global culture.

Confucianism

• Originated in China (400 BCE+).
• Founded by Confucius, an educator and political advisor, with his teachings collected in the Analects.
• Focuses on restoring political and social order rather than philosophical or religious topics.
• Society is built on 5 fundamental relationships: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, older and younger sibling, friend and friend.
• Compatibility with other religions caused it to flourish.
• Led to a distinctive Chinese culture of tight-knit communities.
• It largely remained within Chinese culture.

Hinduism

• Originated in India.
• Belief in one supreme force called Brahma, who created everything; gods Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer) are manifestations of Brahma.
• The goal is to merge with Brahma, requiring multiple lives, determined by following dharma (caste rules).
• Moksha represents internal peace and release of the soul.
• Has no sacred text; Vedas and Upanishads guide Hindus.
• The religion and social caste system have prevented global acceptance, though caste rebellions are now occurring.
• Spawned Buddhism.

Islam

• Originated in the 7th century, with followers known as Muslims.
• Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, recorded in the Qur’an.
• Salvation is achieved through submission to God and following the 5 Pillars of Islam: confession, prayer 5 times a day, charity, fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Two groups, Shia and Sunni, emerged due to disagreements on Muhammad's successor.
• Rapidly spread throughout the Middle East.

Judaism

• Originated with the Hebrews.
• Belief that God selected a group to follow his laws and worship him, establishing a unique relationship.
• The world is for enjoyment, with free will and a destiny of paradise.
• The Hebrew Bible includes the Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry, and prophecies.
• It is the first of the major monotheistic faiths.

Developments in the Middle East

• Abbasid Dynasty: Islamic Empire from 750-1258 CE, with a golden age in the early to mid-9th century.
• Capital in Baghdad (modern-day Iraq).
• Centre for arts and sciences, including mathematics (Nasir al-Din al Tusi), medicine, and writings (House of Wisdom library).
• Built around trade, using receipt and bill systems.
• Decline of Islamic Caliphates resulted from internal rivalries and Mongol invasions.
• Challenged by revolts of enslaved Turkish warriors, new Shia dynasty in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, and Byzantines.
• Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258.
• Ottoman Turks reunited Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in a new Islamic state until 1918.
• Mamluks: An Egyptian group defeated Mongols in Nazareth, helping preserve Islam in the Near East.

Developments in Europe

• Middle Ages: The time between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance.
• The Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire.
• Western Europe collapsed entirely, but Christianity remained strong.
• European Feudalism: The land was divided.
• Feudalism was a European hierarchical social system of the Middle Ages.
• King: possessed power over the whole kingdom.
• Nobles: possessed power over sections of the kingdom in exchange for loyalty and military service.
• Vassals: lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could divide it further, with estates called fiefs or manors.
• The three-field system involved using 3 fields for fall, spring, and one left empty to replenish nutrients.
• Conflict between lords was regulated by a code of chivalry, condemning betrayal and promoting respect.
• Society was male dominated: women could not own land, land was passed down to eldest son (primogeniture), and their education was limited.
• Peasants or Serfs: worked the land.
• They had few rights or freedoms outside of manor.
• They were skilled in trades, which helped them break out of feudal mode as global trade increased, leading to a middle class emergence.

Emergence of Nation-States

• At the end of the Middle Ages, people moved from feudal kingdoms to linguistic and cultural organization.
• Germany: reigning family of emperorship died out, with merchants and tradespeople becoming more powerful.
• England: Nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, reinstating the nobles and laying a foundation for Parliament.
• Later, Parliament was divided into the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
• France: England occupied many parts of France, spurring revolts.
• Joan of Arc fought back English out of Orleans.
• The Hundred Years’ War unified France, leading to England’s withdrawal.
• Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon united Spain in a single monarchy, forcing residents to convert to Christianity (Spanish Inquisition).
• Russia: Taken over by Tartars (eastern Mongols) under Genghis Kahn in 1242 until Russian prince Ivan III expanded his power in the 1400s and became czar.
• Ivan the Terrible became a ruthless ruler, utilizing secret police in the 1500s.

Developments in Asia

• China and Nearby Regions
• Song Dynasty (960-1279)
• Confucianism justified subordination of women - foot binding.
• Neo-Confucianism: Buddhist ideas about soul, filial piety, loyalty.
• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): after brief period of Mongol dominance.
• Religion: influenced by Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, and especially Buddhism in two of its forms.
• Mahayana: peaceful and quiet existence.
• Chan or Zen: meditation and appreciation of beauty.

Japan

• Relatively isolated.
• Feudal Japan (1192):
• Emperor.
• Shogun (chief general).
• Daimyo: Powerful samurai (like knights).
• Code of Bushido: loyalty, courage, honour.
• Lesser samurai (like vassals).
• Peasants and artisans.
• Women had little rights.

India

• Delhi Sultanate: Islamic kingdom in Delhi.
• Islam took over Northern India - clash between Islam monotheism and Hinduism polytheism.
• Islam rulership brought in colleges and farming improvements.
• Rajput Kingdoms: Hindu principalities resisted Muslim forces from 1191 until 1527.

Southeast Asia

• Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand).
• Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade.
• Crafted the Angor Wat temple.

Developments in Africa

• Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries.
• Explosion of trade began.
• Hausa Kingdoms: off Niger River.
• Islam region - salt and leather.
• Economic stability and religious influence though long trade.
• Political and economic downturn in 18th century due to internal wars.

Developments in Americas

• 3 great civilization in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs.
• Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice
• Tenochtitlan: capital city (modern Mexico City).
• Expansionist & strict army.
• Empire of 12 million people with trade.
• Women were subordinate.
• Inca: My Land is Your Land
• Andes Mountains.
• Expansionist army, bureaucracy, language, roads.
• Capital of Cuzco: ≈ 300,000 people in late 1400s.
• Women were more important.
• Religion: Polytheistic & human sacrifice.
• Temple of the Sun and Machu Picchu architecture.

Height of the Middle Ages: Trading and Crusading

• Towns: Merchants emerged (Burghers), becoming powerful and forming alliances.
• Hanseatic League (1358): trade alliance in northern Europe to drive toward nationhood, increase social mobility.
• Architecture: Romanesque to Gothic is reflected especially in cathedrals.
• Flying buttresses: tall windows and vaulted ceilings.
• Art, sculpture, music.
• Scholasticism: growth of education and knowledge.
• Founding of universities & Islamic, Greek ideas.
• Crusades (11-14th century): military campaigns to convert and combat religious questioning.
• Pope Innocent III: strict decrees on church doctrine.
• Pope Gregory IX: Inquisition with punishments.
• Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): faith and reason aren’t in conflict.

Urbanization

• Trade led to urban culture
• Silk Route cities: Baghdad, Merv, Chang’an
• Constantinople before 1400 and Paris and Italian city-states after 1400 were big European cities

The Rise and Fall of the Mongols

• Set of tribes, superb horseman and archers.
• Genghis Kahn unified tribes in Mongolia in the early 1200s, first invading China in 1234.
• Mongol Empire: Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.
• Split into hordes after death of Genghis Kahn.
• Golden Horde: conquered modern-day Russia.
• Kublai Kahn: Genghis Kahn’s successor ruled China. Impact:
• Prevented Russia from culturally developing.
• Great diffusers of culture.
• World trade, cultural diffusion, global awareness grew.
• Timur Lang: Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything - grew Islam in the nation

Mali and Songhai

• Mali had a lot of gold.
• Mansa Musa: Malian ruler; built Timbuktu, expended kingdom.
• Sonni Ali: Songhai ruler that conquered region of west Africa in 15th century, until 1600.

Chinese Technology

• Song Dynasty: Civil service, improved transportation and communication, business practices.
• Improved literacy with printed books.

Review of Interactions Among Cultures

• Trade exploded from 1200-1450.
• Main Global Trade Routes:
• The Hanseatic League.
• The Silk Road.
• The land routes of the Mongols.
• Trade between China and Japan.
• Trade between India and Persia.
• The Trans-Saharan trade routes.
• Cultural diffusion spread religions, languages, literature, art, idea, disease, plague.
• Bubonic Plague: Killed about 1/3 people.
• Indian Ocean Trade: Dominated by Persians and Arabs.
• Great Zimbabwe: trading empire in Africa (11th-15th centuries)
• Sailors marrying local women created cultural intermixing.
• Silk Road: China to Mediterranean cultures, travel towns.
• Hanseatic League: Made up of over 100 cities.
• Created substantial middle class in northern Europe.
• Expansion of Religion and Empire: Cultural Clash.

Other Reasons People Were on the Move

• Ran out of room; cities were always increasing.
• Muslim pilgrimages.
• Notable Global Travellers
• Xuanzang: Chinese Buddhist monk.
• Marco Polo: merchant from Venice.
• Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler.
• Margery Kempe: English Christian.

Major European Developments

• After 300 years of development, Europe become the dominant world power
• Revolutions in European Thought and Expression:.
• Renaissance
• Focus on personal accomplishment, happiness instead of salvation.
• Arts have a comeback: Medici family patrons of Michelangelo, Brunelleschi.
• Johannes Gutenberg invents printing press - made books easy to produce, making books affordable, leading to more literate people.
• The Protestant Reformation
• Nobles and peasants began getting increasingly frustrated by the church’s exploitation.
• Martin Luther: Proposing salvation was given directly through God.
• Pope Leo X: excommunicated Luther.
• lutherans separated from Catholic Church.
• John Calvin: Predestination.
• King Henry VIII declared himself head of religious affairs - presided over Church of England/Anglican Church.
• Jesuits - Ignatius Loyola: Salvation through prayer.
• Council of Trent: punished heretics and reestablished Latin.
• Caused wars. Scientific Revolution: Nicolaus Copernicus discovered the earth revolved around the sun and rotated on its axis.
• Galileo: built off Copernicus’s theories and proved them.
• Scientific Method: Shift from reasoning to scientific method.
• Led to atheists and deists.

European Rivals

• Spain and Portugal
  • Spain became very powerful controlling parts of France, Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain, America.
  • Philip continued the Spanish Inquisition & the Dutch Protestant revolt.
  • Portugal lost control to Dutch and British.
• England
  • Henry VIII never succeeded in having a male heir; his daughter Elizabeth I became Queen.
  • Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): Expansion, colonization - golden age.
  • Muscovy Company: first joint-stock company - British East India Company.
  • James I succeeded Elizabeth in 1607 - England and Scotland under one rulership.
  • Charles I: succeeded James in 1625 - signed Petition of Rights.
  • Scottish invaded England - Called the Long Parliament into session.
  • Parliament raised an army under Oliver Cromwell, to fight the King.
  • Parliament defeats the king and executes him - English Commonwealth.
  • Charles II: Exiled son of Charles I invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell died (Stuart Restoration).
  • James II: Succeeded Charles II after his death - forced from power by Parliament (Glorious Revolution).
  • Succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William - signed English Bill of Rights (1689).
• France
  • Unified and centralized under strong monarchy after Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453).
  • Largely Catholic, but French Protestants started to emerge (Huguenots).
  • Henry IV: Issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance between religions).
  • Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to the Bourbons.
  • Louis XIV - Condemned Huguenots, appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal funds - France almost constantly at war.
• German Areas (Holy Roman Empire): Weak due to mixed dynamics, rulership, and religion.
  • Devastated by Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
  • Peace of Augsburg (1555): intended to bring end to conflict between Catholics and Protestants.
  • Peace of Westphalia (1648): German states affirmed to keep the peace.
• Russia
  • Ivan III refused to pay Mongol tribute.
  • Recruited peasants by offering freedom from boyars (feudal lords).
  • Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible): Strong leader feared by many - executing people who were threats to his power.
  • Michael Romanov was elected by feudal lords until 1917: Romanovs consolidated power.
  • Peter the Great: Ruled from 1682-1725, redesigned and adapted Russia in to westernized fashion. Catherine the Great: Ruled from 1762-1796 - education and Western culture.

Islamic Gunpowder Empires

• Ottoman Empire precedes 1450 - founded by Osman Bey.
• Invaded Constantinople in 1453 and ended Byzantine Empire (Istanbul).
• Ottomans were Islamic. Timars: giving land to aristocrats to control.
• Enslaved Christian children into Janissaries.
• Selim I: came into power in 1512 made Istanbul centre of Islamic civilization.
• Suleiman golden age from 1520-1566.
• Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526 - Mughal Empire.
• Akbar: Succeded Babur from 1556 to 1605 - united India further with religious toleration, did give Muslim landowners (zamindars) power to tax.
• Hindus and Muslims lived side by side in a golden age - Taj Mahal was built.
• Aurangzeb - ender of religious toleration.
• Africa
• Starting in 10th century, wealth accumulated from trade - Songhai, Kongo, and Angola became powerful kingdoms. Angola:
• For the slave trade.
• Queen Nzinga resisted Portuguese.
• Isolated Asia
• China
• Ming Dynasty was restored until 1644 after kicking out Mongols in 1368.
• Built huge fleets to explore Asia and Indian ocean - Zheng He.
• Qing/Manchus ruled China until 1911.
• Not ethnically Chinese, so Kangxi and Qianlong both Confucian scholars.
• Did not interact much with surrounding nations.
• Japan
• National Seclusion Policy (1635): Prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad and prohibited most foreigners.
• National culture thrived - Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry became popular.

Resistance

• Key rebellions in 17th and 18th centuries:
• Ana Nzinga’s Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) - 1641-167.
• Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th century.
• Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804
• Maratha (India) - 1680-1707
• Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century.
• Metacom’s War (US) - 1675-1678
• Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680.

European and Expansion

• Portuguese and Spanish controlled major shipping routes in Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Atlantic Ocean.
• Portuguese financed explorations.
• Prince Henry and Vasco da Gama.
• Spain also did, financing Christopher Columbus.
• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Spain and Portugal to split colonized land.
• England, Netherlands, France launched own explorations - caused rise in nationalism
• Explorers
• Amerigo Vespucci and Ponce de Leon.
• Vasco de Balboa and Ferdinand Magellan.
• Giovanni da Verrazzano & Sir Francis Drake.
• John Cabot and Henry Hudson.
• Products that aided new explorations:
• Sternpost Rudder, Lateen Sails and Astrolabe.
• Magnetic Compass and Three-Masted Caravels.

The New World: Accidental Empire

• Spanish explorers found great wealth in Aztec and Inca Empires.
• Hernando Cortés: landed on coast of Mexico in 1519 = exploiting Aztec Empire.
• Disease: Population reduced from 20 million in 1520 to 2 million in 1580.
• Spanish took control in 1525.
• Francisco Pizarro took over Inca Empire in 1531 partially due to disease.
• Pizarro was in control of Inca Empire by 1535.
• The Encomienda System
• Peninsulares: Spanish officials governing colonies.
• Creoles: Spanish born in colonies to Spanish parents.
• Mestizos: European/Native American ancestry.
• Mulattos: European/African ancestry.
• Native Americans.
• Viceroys: governors of each of 5 regions.

African Slave Trade.

• Slaves brought to New World to work on the plantations and mines.
• Europeans traded for their surplus of enslaved people.
• As demand for slaves in Europe increased, Europe became even more ruthless.
• Slaves were forced onto ships and endured the Middle Passage.
• Around 13 million Africans were taken.

The Columbian Exchange.

• Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, ideas between Europe, Americas, and Africa.
• Population increase from transfer of food products.
• Spanish control of silver opened doors in Ming China.

The Commercial Revolution

• Banking became a respectable practice.
• Joint-stock company (pool resources to reduce dangers).
• Mercantilism led to colonialism to match import demand, causing resentment.
• Europe established limited trade with China.
• Developments in Specific Countries - 1450-1750.
• Monarchies contributed to development of loyalties.

The Enlightenment:

• 17th & 18th centuries humankind in relation to government. Question of ultimate authority: Social contract: governments not formed by divine decree, but economic needs. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke: All men are equal, government should secure rights. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Government is protection by community. Voltaire: Religious toleration. Montesquieu: Separation of power. Adam Smith: economy regulates itself. Enlightened monarchs: quality of life. Neoclassical architecture.

Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and Europe

• American Revolution
• Americans revolting against British after laws passed.
• Boston Tea Party (1773): dumping imported tea.
• Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense, Declaration of Independence.
• France joined forces.
• French Revolution
• Louis XVI proposed raising taxes, led to peasants storming the Bastille.
• Led to Declaration of the Rights of Man.
• Convention created Committee of Public Safety.
• French beheaded Robespierre & established Directory for government.
• built up military, with Napoleon Bonaparte as one of the generals - French military dissolved the Holy Roman Empire.
• Defeated him at Waterloo in 1813 and met at Congress of Vienna to discuss what to do with France. Haiti was also in revolution; France enslaved many Haitians. South America
• Bolívar won freedom for Gran Colombia (Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela).
• José de San Martin - Argentina, Chile, Peruvian. Brazil
• John VI of Portugal and his son Pedro became the emperor of Brazil.
• Pedro II took over and abolished slavery.
• Mexico Led by priest Miguel Hidalgo Independence achieved in 1821.
  • Rejected Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship. Other resistance movements:
  • Samory Toure.
  • Tupac Amaru.

Industry and Imperialism

• Industrial revolution in Britain can not be separated from Imperialism.
• Industrial countries exploited colony resources greatly.
  • London: 6 million people and urbanization was natural.
• domestic system preceded new advancements
• Flying shuttle, and spinning jenny.
• Interchangeable parts made production quick.
• Workers were overworked and underpaid - formation of new social classes.
• Adam Smith: private ownership and free market system (capitalism).
• Karl Marx: Workers would the production.
• Marxism mixed with capitalist ideals.

Nationalist Movements and Other Developments

• Nationalism was strong after Napoleonic era.
• Italy and Germany took longer to unify.
• Russia: Romanov czars.
  • Alexander II began reforms, but assassinated by The People’s Will.
  • Alexander III started Russification. Ottoman Empire: Britain and France maintained it.

The Growth of Nationalism

• Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-state/empires that protects their cultural identity.

In Search of Natural Resources

• Europe looked to colonization.
• Social Darwinists: sociology - there were dominant races or classes therefore Britain was the most powerful/fit.
• Rudyard Kipling: "White Man’s Burden" to civilize others.

European Imperialism in India

• India had luxuries to Europeans - tea, sugar, silk, Jute.
• India was vulnerable Mughal empire and religious conflict
• Britain slowly took over Mughals.
• Sepoy Mutiny: Indians soldiers rebelled due to Muslim/Hindu disrespect.
• Queen Victoria made Empress of India.
• Upper castes taught English, Christianity spread – became free from Britain in the 1900s.
• Indian National Congress formed to fight independence.

European Imperialism in China

• Could only trade with China in city of Canton.
• Widespread addiction due to Opium Wars.
• White Lotus and Taiping Rebellions.
• Self Strengthening Movement failed. In 1900, the US pledged to support sovereignty. Boxer Protocol: China had to pay Europeans and Japanese.

Japanese Imperialism

Commodore Matthew Perry from US arrived in in 1853 with a steamboat

• To join industrialized world.
• Meiji Restoration: Japan became world power taking control of Korea.

European Imperialism in Africa

• Interior Africa remained unknown.
• 1807-1820: most European nations abolished slave trade.
  • South Africa.
• British seized it in 1795.
• fought the Boer - British victory.
• Muhammad Ali was in Egypt
• Constructed with French - British took control of it as well eventually.
  • The Berlin Conference was hosted for land claims

European Colonies in Africa, 1914

• By 1914, almost all of Africa was colonized.
• Traditional culture started falling apart.
• Had substantial infrastructure to the continent
• US’s Monroe Doctrine
  • Declared Western Hemisphere off-limits to Europeans in 1823 but Roosevelt Corollary maintained peace.

The World War I Era

At beginning of 20th century, most of world was colonized by Europe.

• Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) protect against France. Triple Entente: (Britain, France, Russia) - later joined by Japan. Austria Hungary declared war as final blow
• Alliance: Ottoman Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary/over 40 contires joined.
• US joined the Allies in 1917.
• The Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919.
  • Germany was supposed to pay war reparations and release territory.
• Russia fell to a civil war so Lenin
  • Demanded piece in the April THESIS
  • Treaty of Brest. World War II Era Stalin and the Soviet Union.
• 5 year plans.
  • The Great Depression US stock market crash in 1929. FASCISM.
  • Italy with Benito Germany with hitter. SPAIN TURMOIL AFTER FALL.
  • Appeasement - hitler was supposed to not expand.
• Nazi.
• Then Japan bombing pearl. And end with dropping a bomb.

Cold War and Decolonization

US and Soviet Union try to get the world to side with them Arms raced Power grap - - Conferences and the berlin wall with Germany

• French, us

• East Vs. West Europe was clearly divided in East and West soviet East West : us Truman Doctrine (1947) said US would aid countries threatened by communism (containment)

  bandung conference to discuss 1955 : with Africa AND ASIA

COMMUNIST china after manchu after fall, Sun sun yat sen three party system kmf MOWE seongdom at first was good increased. division - the the Vietnam war with the north and south . genocide and cuba also revolted

THE END IS COMING WHEN RUSSIA DECLARED INDEPENDENCE

Independence Movements and Developments in Asia and Africa

• Indian Subcontinent
• Mohandas Gandhi became an important figure philosophy of passive resistance.
• Britain granted independence to India after WWII
• African continent in 1950s, independence movement to