Ancient Roots of Computing and STEM

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Questions and Answers

What is the Ishango Bone, where/what time period is it from, and why do Mathematicians find it interesting?

The Ishango Bone is one of the oldest known mathematical artifacts, possibly a tally stick or a table of prime numbers. It originates from the Upper Paleolithic period (estimated around 20,000 years ago) and was found in the Ishango region of what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Mathematicians find it interesting due to the patterned markings which suggest early understanding of mathematical concepts like counting, sequences, or possibly prime numbers.

What is its significance in the history of Mathematics/Computing? Where is it stored and why?

Its significance lies in being potential evidence of the earliest known mathematical table or sequences, predating other complex mathematical artifacts. It suggests advanced cognitive abilities and mathematical thinking far earlier than previously thought. The original Ishango Bone is stored at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels, Belgium, for preservation and study.

What is the significance of the Egyptian and Ethiopian Math methods we saw in lecture in terms of computing?

Egyptian and Ethiopian mathematical methods, particularly their binary-like multiplication and division techniques (doubling and halving), demonstrate early algorithmic thinking. These methods are conceptually similar to binary operations used in modern computers, showing an ancient foundation for computational processes based on efficient, step-by-step procedures.

In what parts of the world does the early abacus appear? Approximately when was the Abacus invented?

<p>Early forms of the abacus or counting boards appeared in various ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (Sumerian Abacus around 2700–2300 BC), Ancient Rome (Roman hand-abacus), Greece, Egypt, Persia, India, and China. The exact origin and date are debated, but rudimentary counting boards existed thousands of years ago.</p>
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What are some of the areas of the world in which the abacus is used in commerce today?

<p>While largely replaced by electronic calculators and computers, the abacus (especially forms like the Chinese Suanpan or Japanese Soroban) is still used in some parts of Asia (like China, Japan, Russia) and in communities within North America, primarily in small businesses, by street vendors, or for educational purposes.</p>
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How and why is the soroban abacus used in Japanese education today?

<p>The Soroban is used in Japanese education, often in after-school programs or specialized classes (shuzan schools), to enhance mental calculation skills, improve concentration, memory, and foster numerical intuition. It's seen as a tool for brain development, particularly for young children.</p>
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What is involved in subtracting 10000 from 30000 on a Soroban versus a calculator? What is involved in subtracting 20000 from 30000? Which is faster to carry out in terms of number of objects/disks moved versus number of keys pressed on the calculator?

<p>On a Soroban: Subtracting 10000 from 30000 involves clearing one 'heavenly' bead and setting one 'earthly' bead in the ten thousands column (or equivalent moves depending on representation). Subtracting 20000 involves clearing two 'earthly' beads (or equivalent). On a calculator: Both subtractions involve pressing multiple keys (e.g., '3', '0', '0', '0', '0', '-', '1', '0', '0', '0', '0', '='). For skilled users, the Soroban can be faster due to fewer physical movements (moving 1 or 2 beads) compared to multiple key presses.</p>
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What effects on the brain did Japanese researchers find that using the Soroban had on children who used it extensively?

<p>Japanese researchers have found that extensive Soroban use can enhance cognitive abilities, including improved numerical memory, faster mental calculation, increased concentration, and potentially stimulating right-brain development associated with spatial and intuitive processing (visualizing the abacus).</p>
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What paradigm of computing machinery does the abacus fall into - manual or mechanical or both? Discuss

<p>The abacus is primarily a manual computing device. It requires direct human manipulation of beads or counters to perform calculations. While it has moving parts, it lacks the complex internal mechanisms, stored programs, or autonomous operation characteristic of mechanical or electronic computers.</p>
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What time period does early writing appear in Egypt? How have the recent archeological finds in Egypt changed the debate about the origin of writing between Egypt and Mesopotamia?

<p>Early writing (hieroglyphs) appeared in Egypt around 3200 BC (Naqada III period). Recent archaeological finds, such as labels from tomb U-j at Abydos, suggest that Egyptian writing might be as old as or slightly older than Mesopotamian cuneiform, challenging the long-held view that Mesopotamia was the sole origin point of writing.</p>
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What form did early Egyptian writing take, and what was it used for initially, and how was it useful as “a tool for organizing society” and communication?

<p>Early Egyptian writing took the form of hieroglyphs, pictorial symbols representing sounds, objects, or ideas. Initially, it was used for labeling goods, recording inventory, royal decrees, and identifying ownership (e.g., on pottery and labels). It was useful for organizing society by enabling record-keeping for administration, taxation, trade, religious rituals, and communicating decrees and historical events over distances and time.</p>
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Which alphabets are descendants of the Egyptian hieroglyph writing system?

<p>Several alphabetic systems are believed to descend from Egyptian hieroglyphs, primarily through an intermediary script called Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite). This script adapted hieroglyphs to represent consonantal sounds, influencing the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn is the ancestor of Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Etruscan, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets.</p>
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Writing has been described as “the first language and speech computer” because it “allows the recording and transmission of language and speech across distance and across time”. What does this mean (give examples)?

<p>This means writing acts like a technology (a 'computer' in a broad sense) that processes, stores, and transmits language. It overcomes the limitations of spoken words, which are ephemeral and geographically bound. Examples: Ancient Egyptian tomb inscriptions communicate beliefs across millennia; a letter sent overseas transmits thoughts across distance; a legal contract records an agreement for future reference.</p>
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Computing has been defined as “the manipulation and storage of symbols.” Where symbols include characters, numerals, symbolic representations of pictures, sound/notes, commands (e.g.stop sign,...). In light of this, why is the development of writing important to computing?

<p>The development of writing was crucial because it was humanity's first major technology for the systematic manipulation and storage of symbols (characters and numerals). It established the fundamental concepts of representing information symbolically and recording it externally, which are core principles underlying all later forms of computing, from manual calculation aids to modern digital computers.</p>
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Does computing being defined as “the manipulation and storage of symbols” contradict the notion of computing as carrying out mathematical operations? Why or why not?

<p>No, it does not contradict it. Mathematical operations are a specific type of symbol manipulation. Numbers are symbols, and mathematical rules (like addition or multiplication) are defined procedures for manipulating these symbols to derive new symbolic representations (the results). Therefore, carrying out mathematical operations falls under the broader definition of computing as symbol manipulation.</p>
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What were the limitations of the water clocks before the inventions of Tesibius (Ctesibius), and how did his early inventions address this?

<p>Early water clocks (clepsydras) were often inaccurate because the flow rate of water decreased as the water level in the container fell. Ctesibius addressed this by inventing mechanisms, such as a conical or parabolic container shape and/or a constant-head device (using an overflow system), to ensure a more constant rate of water flow, leading to significantly improved timekeeping accuracy.</p>
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What was the significance of the Library/university of Alexandria in Egypt? What was Tesibius' role there?

<p>The Library of Alexandria was the most significant center of learning, scholarship, and research in the ancient world, housing vast collections of scrolls and attracting leading intellectuals. Ctesibius (Tesibius) is believed to have been the head of the Library or at least a very prominent scholar and inventor working there, contributing to its reputation as a hub of innovation and knowledge.</p>
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How did the Library/university of Alexandria influence the work/education of Archimedes?

<p>While Archimedes primarily worked in Syracuse, he studied or had significant contact with scholars connected to Alexandria (like Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes). He corresponded with Alexandrian mathematicians, shared his discoveries with them, and was likely influenced by the knowledge and methods developed or preserved at the Library.</p>
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How was the Library/university of Alexandria destroyed?

<p>The destruction of the Library of Alexandria was not a single event but occurred gradually over centuries through various incidents, including fires (e.g., potentially during Julius Caesar's campaign in 48 BC), budget cuts, neglect, shifts in ruling power, religious conflicts (e.g., destruction of the Serapeum temple, a sister library, in 391 AD), and possibly the Muslim conquest in 642 AD, though the extent of destruction in each event is debated by historians.</p>
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What did the Antikythera Mechanism do?

<p>The Antikythera Mechanism was an ancient Greek analog computer used to predict astronomical positions (like the sun, moon, and likely planets), eclipses, and the timing of Panhellenic games (like the Olympics). It used a complex system of bronze gears to model celestial cycles.</p>
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What are the main differences between the Antikythera Mechanism and the Tesibius clocks?

<p>The main differences lie in their primary function and complexity. Tesibius' clocks were designed primarily for timekeeping, using water flow regulated by ingenious hydraulics. The Antikythera Mechanism was significantly more complex, using intricate gear trains to model astronomical cycles and predict celestial events, functioning as an astronomical calculator rather than just a clock.</p>
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Approximately how old is it, where was it found, and who invented it?

<p>The Antikythera Mechanism dates to approximately the 2nd or 1st century BC (roughly 200-100 BC). It was found by sponge divers in 1901 in a Roman-era shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera. The specific inventor is unknown, but it likely originated from a Greek scientific tradition possibly associated with Rhodes or Syracuse, potentially involving figures like Hipparchus or Posidonius, though direct attribution is speculative.</p>
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What is the origin of the word ‘algorithm'?

<p>The word 'algorithm' is derived from the name of the 9th-century Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī. His Latinized name was 'Algoritmi,' and his work introduced Indian numerals and systematic methods for solving equations (algebra) to the Western world. 'Algorism' initially referred to the process of doing arithmetic using these numerals, eventually evolving into 'algorithm' meaning a specific procedure for computation.</p>
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Where was Al-Khwarithmi from, and what time period?

<p>Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a Persian scholar from the Khwarazm region (modern-day Uzbekistan/Turkmenistan). He lived and worked during the Islamic Golden Age, primarily at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, during the early 9th century AD (approximately 780 – 850 AD).</p>
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What is the Golden Principle of Al-Khwarithmi (aka Al-Khwarizmi)? What techniques in modern software design look similar to it and why?

<p>Al-Khwarizmi did not explicitly state a single 'Golden Principle,' but his fundamental contribution was the systematic, step-by-step approach to problem-solving, particularly in algebra. His method involved reducing problems to standard forms using operations like 'al-jabr' (restoring/completion) and 'al-muqabala' (balancing). This emphasis on breaking down problems into clear, repeatable steps is the essence of algorithms. Modern software design techniques like structured programming, decomposition (breaking problems into smaller modules/functions), and following clear logical steps directly mirror Al-Khwarizmi's systematic approach.</p>
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What is the relation of the ancient Hindu numeral notation to the modern numeral notation we use today? What was the role of Al-Khwarithmi in this regard?

<p>The modern numeral system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), known as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, originated in India (Hindu numerals). Al-Khwarizmi played a crucial role in transmitting this system to the Arab world and subsequently to Europe through his book &quot;On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals&quot; (translated into Latin as &quot;Algoritmi de numero Indorum&quot;). He documented and advocated for this positional, base-10 system including the use of zero.</p>
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What was the original meaning of the word algebra? What was the role of Al-Khwarithmi in regards to algebra?

<p>The word 'algebra' comes from the Arabic word 'al-jabr' which appeared in the title of Al-Khwarizmi's seminal book, &quot;Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala&quot; (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing). 'Al-jabr' refers to the operation of 'restoring' or 'completion,' specifically moving a negative term from one side of an equation to the other side as a positive term. Al-Khwarizmi's role was foundational; his book systematized the solving of linear and quadratic equations, establishing algebra as a distinct mathematical discipline.</p>
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What role did Africans play in the original invention of iron production? What time period and region of Africa was this? What types of tools and art did they make from the iron?

<p>Africans, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, independently developed iron smelting technology. Evidence suggests iron production may have begun as early as 1000 BC or even earlier in regions like East Africa (Great Lakes region - Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi - Haya people) and West Africa (Nok culture, Nigeria). They developed sophisticated bloomery furnaces capable of reaching high temperatures. They produced tools (hoes, axes, knives, arrowheads, spear points), weapons, and ceremonial or artistic objects (e.g., Nok terracotta figures sometimes incorporated iron).</p>
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How was iron used for trade in Africa? What was the significance of pure iron ceremonially in Africa generally? What was their opinion about the general quality of European iron?

<p>Iron goods (tools, weapons, currency bars/bundles) were valuable trade items within and between African communities. High-quality or pure iron often held significant ceremonial and symbolic value, associated with power, prestige, royalty, and spiritual protection; blacksmiths often held special status. African ironworkers generally regarded early European trade iron as inferior in quality to their own well-smelted products, sometimes referring to it disparagingly.</p>
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How were bundles of iron used in Africa in trade and ceremonially?

<p>Bundles of smelted iron blooms, rods, or standardized shapes (like 'kissi pennies') served as a form of currency or commodity money in many parts of Africa for trade. They represented stored value and wealth. Ceremonially, specific forms or quantities of iron could be used in dowries, rituals, installations of chiefs, or as symbolic offerings.</p>
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Why were Africans skilled in ironworking, building, and advanced agriculture targeted in the trans-Atlantic enslavement trade, and what role did these Africans play in building the modern infrastructure of the Americas and the Caribbean?

<p>Africans with these skills were deliberately targeted because their expertise was desperately needed to establish and sustain profitable plantations and colonies in the Americas. Their knowledge of metallurgy (ironworking), construction techniques (building), and tropical agriculture (especially rice cultivation) was directly transferred and exploited. Enslaved Africans provided the essential skilled and unskilled labor that built the foundational infrastructure—clearing land, constructing buildings, bridges, roads, and developing agricultural systems—upon which the wealth of the Americas and Caribbean was based.</p>
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How did Europe benefit from these STEM and agricultural skills of the Africans, and what was the wealth generated used for?

<p>Europe benefited immensely by exploiting these skills through the system of chattel slavery. The labor and knowledge of enslaved Africans generated vast profits from cash crops (sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice) and resource extraction in the colonies. This wealth fueled the growth of European economies, financed the Industrial Revolution, funded universities and cultural institutions, built cities, and enriched merchant classes, banks, and governments across Europe.</p>
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In the 1770's, a foundry was established at Reeders Pen in Morant Bay, St. Thomas, Jamaica... What reasons were given for the order by the British government to dismantle the Reeders Pen foundry in 1782?

<p>The official reasons given often centered on fears of the enslaved population gaining access to weapons. The foundry, successfully run by skilled Africans, produced high-quality iron goods, potentially including weapons like cannons. This capability, especially in the hands of a large enslaved and free African workforce, was perceived as a significant security threat by the British colonial authorities, particularly following slave uprisings and resistance movements like that of Three-Finger Jack in the same region.</p>
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How might the fears of Africans in Jamaica mastering the production of weapons (including cannons), tools, ship hardware etc. have played a role (especially a year after the dramatic climax of the Three-Finger Jack African rebel freedom fighter group uprising in the St.Thomas area of Jamaica that drove fear into the British and was published in newspapers globally in 1781)?

<p>The fears likely played a major role. The successful operation of the foundry by Africans demonstrated a high level of technical skill and organizational capacity. An event like the Three-Finger Jack uprising in 1781 would have amplified British anxieties about the potential for large-scale, well-armed revolts. Dismantling a facility capable of producing weapons, run by the very population they feared, would be seen as a necessary step to maintain control and prevent future uprisings.</p>
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Henry Cort patented the ‘Cort process’ in 1783 and in more detail globally in 1784. How was the bundling of iron and recycling of scrap iron methods used at Reeders Pen foundry by free and enslaved Africans incorporated in this improved iron production method and patent?

<p>Evidence suggests that key elements of the 'Cort process,' particularly puddling (stirring molten iron to remove impurities) and the use of grooved rollers, may have incorporated or refined techniques observed or acquired from the dismantled Reeders Pen foundry. Techniques like bundling scrap iron ('faggoting') before heating and working it, known to be used by the Africans at Reeders Pen, became a crucial step in Cort's patented process for producing wrought iron efficiently.</p>
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How did Henry Cort get into iron production in 1780, what was his prior profession/experience, and how was his foundry doing (profit or loss and quality) prior to 1782 when he “found out some great secret in the making of iron”?

<p>Henry Cort was initially a Royal Navy agent (paymaster) before entering the iron business around 1775 by taking over a forge/mill at Fontley, near Portsmouth. Prior to 1782-83, his ventures were not particularly successful; he faced financial difficulties and the quality of his iron was likely standard for the time, not exceptional. He was seeking ways to improve production and quality when he encountered the developments potentially originating from Jamaica around 1782.</p>
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The 'Cort process' invention increased iron production in Britain by fifteen-fold, (1500%), and the process is the basis of iron production methods today. How did this change the quality and the global role of Britain in iron production?

<p>The Cort process dramatically increased the <em>quantity</em> and improved the <em>quality</em> and <em>consistency</em> of wrought iron produced in Britain. It allowed the use of readily available coal (instead of charcoal) and scrap iron. This cheaper, better iron fueled the Industrial Revolution, making Britain the world's leading iron producer. It enabled the mass production of machinery, rails, bridges, ships, and tools, fundamentally changing Britain's industrial capacity and global economic dominance.</p>
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What title was given to Henry Cort by British (and many other) historians of the industrial revolution?

<p>Henry Cort has often been hailed by traditional British (and other) historians as the 'Father of the Iron Trade' or a pivotal figure whose inventions (puddling and rolling) were foundational to the Industrial Revolution.</p>
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What was said about the value of this ‘Cort process' invention compared to the total value of the original 13 British colonies of the Americas (the original 13 United States)?

<p>Contemporaries and later historians estimated the economic value generated by the 'Cort process' for Britain to be immense, potentially equaling or exceeding the estimated total economic value derived from the original 13 American colonies, highlighting its profound impact on British wealth and industrial power.</p>
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How did this ‘Cort process' invention contribute to the first phase of the industrial revolution (used in the production of steam engines, trains/railways, iron shipbuilding, iron-based buildings including skyscrapers, tools, heavy industrial machinery, calculators, early mechanical computers, and later automobiles and aircraft)?

<p>The Cort process provided the abundant, strong, and relatively cheap wrought iron necessary for constructing the key components of the Industrial Revolution. This included: boilers and parts for steam engines, rails and locomotives for railways, hulls for iron ships, structural frames for buildings and bridges (leading eventually to skyscrapers), tools, and the machinery used in factories. Better iron was also essential for later developments like early calculators/computers, automobiles, and aircraft.</p>
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What was the role of former UWI Prof Kofi Agorsah, Dr Goucher, and recently Dr Jenny Bulstrode of Univ of London in uncovering the hidden history of the Reeders Pen foundry?

<p>These researchers played key roles in uncovering and publicizing the history. Archaeologist Prof Kofi Agorsah conducted excavations at Reeders Pen. Historian Dr Candice Goucher researched African ironworking traditions and their transfer to the Caribbean. Dr Jenny Bulstrode synthesized historical and archaeological evidence, linking the techniques used at the African-run Reeders Pen foundry directly to Henry Cort's patented process, challenging traditional narratives of the invention.</p>
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What was the goal of Babbage's Difference Engine? What were the problems that the British had that he was trying to solve, and how was it affecting the British economy etc?

<p>The goal of Babbage's Difference Engine was to automatically calculate and print error-free mathematical tables (like logarithm, trigonometric, and navigational tables). The British relied heavily on such tables for navigation, astronomy, engineering, and finance, but existing tables were calculated by human 'computers' and were prone to errors. These errors could lead to costly mistakes in navigation (shipwrecks), engineering projects, and financial calculations, negatively impacting trade, safety, and the economy.</p>
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What were some of the difficulties he encountered in building it and how did he overcome them? How did his solution affect other areas of the British engineering industry?

<p>Babbage faced significant difficulties including: 1) Achieving the required precision in manufacturing thousands of identical mechanical parts, which was beyond the standard capabilities of the time. 2) Securing consistent and adequate funding from the government. 3) Political and personal disputes. He overcame manufacturing challenges by designing new machine tools and advocating for higher standards of precision engineering. While the full engine wasn't completed in his lifetime, his demand for precision spurred advancements in machine tool technology and mechanical engineering practices in Britain.</p>
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Why did he get funding from the British government for it?

<p>The British government funded Babbage's Difference Engine because they recognized the significant economic and strategic value of accurate mathematical tables. Reducing errors in navigation for the Royal Navy and merchant marine, as well as improving accuracy in engineering and finance, promised substantial benefits for the nation's trade, military power, and industrial development. The potential cost savings from avoiding errors justified the investment.</p>
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Flashcards

Ishango Bone

The oldest known mathematical table.

Binary mathematics

A system using 0 and 1 to represent information.

Abacus

A manual computing device used for calculations.

Ancient Egypt Writing

Writing systems used in ancient Egypt.

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Egyptian hydraulic water clocks

Early timekeeping devices using water flow.

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Antikythera Mechanism

An ancient mechanical calculator.

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Al-Khwarithmi

His work gave rise to the word algorithm and algebra.

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Improved Iron-Making Role

Improved iron-making led to the invention of the steam engine and modern factories.

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Charles Babbage

Colonial expansion inspired the the first mechanical computation device.

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Study Notes

  • These notes cover the ancient roots of computing, engineering, mathematics, algorithms, writing, and the start of the Industrial Revolution.

Historical Influence on Computing and STEM

  • Historical events shape the paradigms of computing and STEM.
  • Historical discoveries provide value in current STEM and inventions.

Ancient Roots of Mathematics and Computing

  • The Ishango Bone is the oldest known mathematical table.
  • Binary mathematics/algorithms existed in Ancient Egypt and Ethiopia.

Manual Computing: The Abacus

  • The abacus, specifically the Japanese Soroban, impacts education.

Roots of the Alphabet and Writing

  • Writing in Ancient Egypt played a role in organizing society, communication, and developing STEM and computing.
  • Symbolic representation of language/information is essential for recording and transmitting information.

Early Mechanical Computers

  • Egyptian hydraulic water clocks were invented by Tesibius, head of the Library of Alexandria.
  • The Antikythera Mechanism computed the position of the moon and planets.

Al-Khwarithmi and the Origin of Algorithms

  • Al-Khwarithmi of Persia established the golden principle.
  • Al-Khwarithmi developed algebra and introduced Hindu numerals.

Roots of the Industrial Revolution

  • Improved iron-making played a role in the invention of the steam engine, trains/railways, modern factories, iron bridges, and skyscrapers.
  • Africans in Jamaica invented improved iron-making techniques.
  • Henry Cort of Britain patented improved iron-making methods.

Industrial Revolution and Colonial Expansion

  • The industrial revolution and colonial expansion inspired Charles Babbage to invent the first numeric mechanical computer.

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