All About Forests

• Forests are large groups of trees in an area.
• Forests provide environmental protection as carbon sinks, prevent erosion, act as wind breakers, aid cloud formation, and recharge drainage systems.
• Forests also provide habitats for animals.
• Forests supply timber as raw materials for industries.
• Forests conserve biodiversity by providing homes to many species.
• Forests are tourist attractions due to the variety of trees.
• Forests provide raw materials for medicines.

Types of Forests

• Protective forests are man-made.
• Productive forests are natural and produce fruit, raw materials, foods, fodder, and timber.

Forest Species

• Alpine forests are a type of forest species.
• Coniferous forests are a type of forest species.
• Sub-tropical scrub forests are a type of forest species.
• Tropical thorn forests are a type of forest species.
• Mangroves are a type of forest species.
• Desert vegetation is a type of forest species.
• Tropical thorn forests, scrub forests, and mangroves grow at altitudes lower than 1000m.
• Coniferous forests grow from 1000-4000 m.
• Alpine forests grow at 4000-4500 m.
• The snowline is at 4500-5000 m.

Alpine Forests

• Alpine forests have low tree density and stunted growth due to harsh climatic conditions.
• Alpine forests are found at very high altitudes in mountainous regions of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush.

Coniferous Trees

• Coniferous trees are cone-shaped which allows snow to slide off.
• Coniferous trees are tall to seek sunlight.
• Their leaves are needle-shaped to prevent transpiration.
• Coniferous trees have springy branches.
• Roots are shallow and spread out to hold the tree.
• Coniferous trees form close canopies which block sunlight from reaching the ground.
• Coniferous trees are closer to each other, unlike alpine trees which are far apart.
• Forest floors in coniferous forests have less undergrowth because less sunlight reaches the floor.

Subtropical Scrub Forests

• Subtropical scrub forests range between 600-1700 m above sea level.
• Subtropical scrub forests are divided into subtropical scrub forests and subtropical thorn forests.
• Broadleaved forests grow in the lower reaches between 600-1000m and consist of drought-resistant species.
• Subtropical pine forests are found at 1000-1700m.

Tropical Thorn Forests

• Tropical thorn forests are open, low forests dominated by thorny hardwood trees.
• Tropical thorn forests are used as firewood.
• Temperatures in this zone can reach as high as 50°C, with 250-750 mm of rainfall.
• In Punjab, tropical thorn forests are characterized by scrubs called Rakh which can survive on very small amounts of water.

Bela Forests

• Bela forests mostly occur in Sindh, along both banks of the Indus River.
• Bela forests rely on inundation by the river for irrigation.
• Their existence is heavily dependent on the intensity, duration, and frequency of river water flow.
• Bela forests are a source of fuel, wood, timber, fodder, and tannin.
• Bela Forests serve as carbon sinks and protect surrounding areas from the severity of floods.

Mangroves

• Mangroves are shrubs and trees that survive in saline conditions.
• Mangroves live in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Mangroves are near estuaries and marine life.
• Mangroves have three different types of roots: anchor, prop, and breathing roots.

Threats to Mangroves

• Mangroves are lost when they are torn up, filled in, and dug under for agriculture, aquaculture, and other development activities.
• Mangroves are misused as garbage dumps.
• Mangroves have been filled with insecticides to prevent mosquito infestations.
• Mangroves are vulnerable to oil spills since oil floats into these swamps and kills and damages trees.

Solutions For Mangrove Concerns

• Educate people about mangroves.
• Reduce chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides by using organically grown vegetables, flour, or meat to lessen the pollution in mangroves.
• Express the importance of mangroves.
• Vote out politicians who do not support mangrove preservation.

Uses of Mangroves

• Mangroves are used for timber, charcoal making, and fishing grounds.
• An extract of mangrove bark can cure throat cancer when gargled.
• Ashes or bark from mangrove trees can treat skin disorders.
• Mangroves can be a source of timber, fuel, and materials.
• Mangroves are also needed for boats, houses, and furniture.
• Toxins in mangrove trees repel insects.
• Mangroves provide a supply of firewood.
• Mangroves serve as a breeding ground for fish and shrimp.
• Camels and livestock feed on coastal mangroves.
• Mangrove leaves fertilize the ground with nutrients as they fall.

Deforestation

• Deforestation is the clearing of a vast area of vegetation.
• Causes of deforestation include timber use, farming (arable and livestock), urbanization, dams and reservoirs, raw materials for industries, and mining.
• Ecological effects of deforestation include soil erosion, siltation, air pollution, habitat loss, extinction, reduced biodiversity, flooding, disruption to water supply, and waterlogging.
• Effects of deforestation on humans include migration, health hazards, climate change, less rainfall, crop destruction, and food insecurity.

Agriculture

• Agriculture provides food supply.
• Agriculture Addresses domestic needs.
• Exports increase earnings of foreign cash and increase foreign reserves.
• Agriculture supplies raw materials for industries
• Agriculture is a source of employment and increases the buying power of individuals.

Types of Agriculture

• Subsistence farming is impactful due to natural factors (land, soil, climate, water).
• Subsistence farming relies on human inputs (natural manure, draft power from bullocks, irrigation systems, desi varieties of seeds).
• Commercial farming's natural impacts mirror subsistence farming.
• Commercial farming relies on human inputs like irrigation systems, chemical fertilizers, farm machinery, skilled labor, pesticides, and ploughing.
• Subsistence farmers grow crops for themselves or their families and are small-scale, mainly growing food.
• Commercial farmers grow crops to get the maximum profit.
• Commercial farmers are large-scale, mainly growing cash crops like cotton, seeds, and tobacco, but also some food crops which act primarily as cash crops.
• Processes of farming include sowing, ploughing, and harvesting.

Types of Crops

• Rabi crops are winter crops sown in Oct-Nov and harvested in April-May, such as wheat.
• Kharif crops are summer crops sown in April-June and harvested in Oct-Nov, such as rice, sugarcane, and cotton.

Major Crops

Wheat

• Wheat is a grass cultivated worldwide and is a staple food used to make flour for various food items.
• Wheat can be planted to a limited extent as a forage crop for livestock and used as a construction material for roofing thatch.
• Geographical requirements for wheat growth:
  • Temperature of 10-20 degrees during growing and 25-30 degrees during ripening.
  • Moderate rainfall ensures better grain yield.
  • Moderately stiff loamy or clayey soil that is flat and well-drained to facilitate machinery use.
• Cultivation of wheat:
  • Wheat seeds are sown directly into the ground after ploughing the field in the winter.
  • Wheat doesn't need much water; most farmers irrigate it only twice.
  • The first irrigation is done one month after sowing, and the second takes place a month before harvesting.
  • Wheat is harvested after 3 months.

Rice

• Geographical requirements for rice growth:
  • Temperature of 20-30 degrees without a cold season, with a warm, dry place for harvesting.
  • Rainfall of 1270 to 2000 mm, requires plenty of rain for 4-6 months of growing and a sunny harvesting time.
  • Land and soil should be level for easy irrigation, with loamy and clayey soil.

Sugarcane

• Sugarcane is a grass crop and mainly a cash crop.
• Sugarcane is rich in sugar, grows tall, 30 cm and 2-6 meters tall.
• Cultivation of sugarcane:
  • Sugar is propagated from cuttings rather than seeds.
  • Each cutting must have one bud and must be planted by land.
  • After each cutting, it can grow again from pruned roots and can be harvested for 2-3 successive years, though it usually gives a smaller yield each time.
• Requirements for sugarcane growth:
  • Temperature of 25-30 °C
  • Rainfall of 1520 mm, meaning irrigation is needed
  • Loam and clay soil with silt help to return water and replaced nutrients.
• Sugarcane uses
  • Makes sugar cane juice, white/brown sugar, bagasse (furniture), and molasses.
  • Requires many chemical fertilizers.

Cotton

• Requires a temp of 25-35°C and rainfall of 100 mm, and is sensitive to frost.
• Thrives in flat land with loam (nutrients needed).
• Irrigation is performed.
• Seeds are sown 30-45 cm apart as they spread out.
• Ripens in Oct/Nov.
• Women are usually hired to pick cotton balls since they are delicate.
• Cotton is then set to ginning mills.
• Seeds are separated from the lint, and the cotton is sent to spin.
• Cotton becomes unstable if there is rain before harvest.
• Lint is used as animal fodder.
• Cotton is threatened by leaf and curl virus.

Major Growing Areas

• Wheat: Bhawalpur, Multan
• Rice: Sialkot, Gujranwala
• Cotton: Multan, Bahawalpur
• Sugar cane: Faisalabad, Peshawar

Paddy Fields

• Paddy fields are cultivated rice fields that are normally flooded or irrigated with water.
• Waterlogged soil in paddy fields prevents pests and weeds and also the productivity.
• Labour intensive due to a lot of manual labour.
• Rice is a staple food in Pakistan.
• Harvested rice is 'polished'.
• Rice is naturally brown but polished to be white.
• Before harvest, the land is drained.

Livestock Farming

• Livestock is used as draft power, such as with the Persian wheel.
• Livestock provides milk, meat, wool, and eggs.
• Livestock offers transportation, especially in undeveloped places.
• Raw materials from livestock contribute to cottage industries, accounting for 13% of exports.
• Cow dung is used as manure and biofuel.
• Livestock provides hides and skins for making leather.
• Livestock accounts for 10% of GDP.

Cattle

• Cattle are chief farm animals.
• Cattle supply milk and meat.
• Breeds of cattle include Red Sindhi, Dharni, Sakivval, and Bhargrani.

Buffaloes

• Buffaloes are a main source of milk.
• Buffaloes are not important as draft animals.
• Buffaloes love and can't tolerate cold water.
• Punjab has the highest number of buffaloes.
• Nilibar, Kundi, and Ravi are good breeds of buffalo.

Sheep and Goats

• Sheep and goats are widely distributed in Pakistan.
• Sheep and goats are sure-footed animals and can survive anywhere.
• Government discourages raising sheep and goats, as they feed on vegetation, loosening the soil and causing soil erosion.
• Sheep and goats provide meat, milk, skins, and wool.

Goats

• Goats provide meat for domestic use and for profit.
• Goats are easy to care for for as they are sure-footed animals.
• Goats also give leather and hide as raw materials for industries such as the tanning industry.
• Goats loosen the soil and cause erosion, due to the overgrazing.
• This can lead to barren land and desertification, and can damage trees and cause deforestation.
• Goats can survive in areas of poor quality or quantity of grass.
• Buffaloes survive in unique areas that are less usable for agriculture.
• Goats can nibble small vegetation and climb tough terrain, rendering them more useful for agriculture.
• Livestock is very important for the economy of agriculture.

Subsistence Farming

• Subsistence farming includes settled farmers.
• Nomadic or pastoral farming is practiced in Thar, Balochistan, and Kharan.
• Transhumance farming is practiced in the northern highland areas by semi-nomads.
• Nomadic farming is practiced in Balochistan and desert areas.
• Goats, sheep, and camels are mostly kept in nomadic farming.
• Nomadic farming provides milk and meat at a subsistence level.
• Camels are used for transport in nomadic farming.
• Nomadic tribes keep moving in search of food and water.
• Transhumance farming is practiced in mountainous areas.
• Animals in transhumance farming feed on high pastures in summers and are brought down to lower elevations in winter.
• Goats, sheep, and yaks are the main animals in transhumance farming.
• Transhumance farmers provide meat, milk, and wool.
• Animals may be sold to meet subsistence needs.
• Settled farmers practice in villages like Sindh and Punjab.
• Settled farmers own on a small scale by private owners or on a large scale by the government or military.
• Larger farms have better facilities such as milking machines.
• Cattle and buffalo are mainly kept by settled farmers.
• Poultry farms are present too.

Land Reforms

• Three sets of land reforms: 1959 (Ayub Khan), 1972 (Z.A. Bhutto), and 1977 (Z.A. Bhutto).
• These are when the land reforms were introduced by politicians.
• Main points of the land reforms:
  • Ceiling of ownership with compensation for landowners, with ownership limited by zamindars.
  • Exemptions/compensation to landlords, giving them less exploitation when land is taken.
  • Landlord/tenant relationship increases productivity of the land.
  • Consolidation of holdings decreases farm sizes due to the law of inheritance, this would decreases productivity
• The points were only half heartedly implemented by the government, which included landowners who did not create laws against themselves.
• Land reforms were impacted Political influence and incomplete record keeping.
• Corruption/manipulation allowed landowners to control records about themselves.
• The law of inheritance equally divides land between the landlord's children after death, thus making it smaller.
• Feudalism involves landowners exploiting peasants and results in less productivity.

Impact of Agriculture

• Agriculture impacts the environment through fertilizers, deforestation, fossil fuel use, unlined canals, over-cultivation, and overgrazing.
• Solutions to the harmful agriculture methods include soil management, organic fertilizer, lined canals, afforestation, variety of crops, genetically modified seeds, funds, and reclaiming deserts.

Water Resources

• Sustainable resources include water, air, and trees, and need to be sustained due to depletion.
• Sustainable water management means meeting the water needs of the present without compromising the ability for future generations to do the same.
• Achieving this requires multidisciplinary approaches incorporating economic and landscape considerations.
• Renewable resources: Replenished easily like sunlight, air, trees, and water.
• Non-renewable resources requires more time to replenish, like oil, petroleum, and coal.
• Sustainable resources include water and air.

Importance of Rivers

• Rivers provide economic benefits through agriculture, hydroelectric power, irrigation, fishing, precious stones, and sporting events.
• Rivers provide social benefits through entertainment and jobs.
• Rivers provide environmental benefits through scenic beauty and fertile soil.
• Rivers provide political benefits by setting borders between countries, facilitating regional evaporation, fostering a sense of unity, and shaping landscapes.
• Transpiration involves vapours from vegetation.
• Condensation involves water vapours forming droplets.
• Evaporation refers to water turning into vapours.
• Precipitation involves droplets falling in a continuous flow as mist, rain, snow, or hail.
• Infiltration is the absorption of water in the soil.
• Surface runoff refers to water flowing down the surface.
• Percolation refers to water seeping down into the surface and settling down before the bedrock.
• Groundwater is an aquifer (reserve of water).

River Classifications

• There are eastern and western rivers.
• Industrial use of water includes:
  • Raw material and processing
  • Pharmaceuticals (syrups) and Tanning
  • Food and Textile
  • Mineral and Steel
  • Chemical and raw materials

River Distibution

• River discharge refers to the volume of water flow.
• Highest discharge is dependent on the drainage basin.
• Discharge rises in June.
• Peaks in August, July and September.
• Declines in September.
• Discharge is caused by monsoons and melting glaciers.
• The Indus has the largest drainage basin.
• Ravi and Sutlej are in control of India.
• Melting glaciers causes monsoons to peak.

Groundwater

• Groundwater fills surface waters like lakes, seas, etc.
• Groundwater is stored in small crevices and rocks in the ground.
• A full body of groundwater is called an aquifer.
• When digging to the groundwater, the water that is shown first is called the water table.
• The ground below the watertable is soaked.
• Some rainwater is used by plants and the environment and the rest seeps down into the ground.
• Groundwater can be more than a thousand years old.
• Saturated zones: where the ground is soaked with water.
• Unsaturated zones: where the ground does not contain water.
• The aquifers can refill due to surface water and rain, and the time it takes depends on the capacity of the aquifers
• If the watertable exceeds the the surface water level, it rises

Irrigation

• Irrigation is the man-made supply of water to land to encourage vegetation.
• It is a substitute for inadequate or erratic rainfall and is essential for arid regions.
• Pakistan has 75% of its irrigated land.
• Factors that encourage canal irrigation in Pakistan:
  • Availability of labour/cement reduces construction costs.
  • Building canals is eased by soft soil and the level of the rivers because water flows south naturally.
  • Quantities of water from monsoon are preserved in reservoirs.
• Canal systems work to irrigation vast areas.

Dams and Barrages

• Dams are walls are constructed to control the flow of water.
• Dams have reservoirs where water is stored and provided for irrigation.
• Tarbela, Warsak, Mangla are major dams in Pakistan.
• Dams are built in higher altitudes.
• Produce hydroelectric power.
• Barrages are wall structures that have flat surfaces.
• Barrages lack reservoirs.
• Used for irrigation, chemical and industrial use.
• Barrages don't produce hydroelectric power.
• Similarities in dams and barrages: They provide resources for irrigation, domestic and industrial, and they control floods.

Conventional Methods of Irrigation

• Shaduf
• Chartsa
• Persion Wheel
• Karez
• Inundation canals

Modern Methods of Irrigation

• Perennial canals
• Tube wells
• Tankers
• Spray irrigation
• Drip irrigation

Shaduf Method

• Water is extracted from a river or lake by a human using a buck attached to a weighted pole.
• A lot of time and effort leads to a small space being used for irrigation.

Charsa Method

• Water is extracted by animal and directed for irrigation.
• Requires time, only irrigates small space.

Persian Wheel

• Mechanical device that lifts water powered by animals.
• Vertical wheels are connected to horizontal one by shaft that has buckets.
• Water would be collected by the wheel raising.

Karez Canals

• Type of underground system in Balochistan.
• Underground canals channels water, where it is required.
• Many km long.
• Shafts are dug to ensure cleanliness.

Inundation Canals

• The inundation canals are sourced from rivers when the water levels are high.

Perennial Canals

• Extracted from dams and barrages to supply water.
• Pakistan consists of one of the highest canal water systems in the world.

Tube Wells

• Stainless steel equipment, between 100 - 200 mm that extract underground water.
• Helps waterlogged soils.

Tankers

• Irrigation is expensive and houses and fields can be collected with water
• Non enviromental and water can be collected anywhere.

Spray Irrigation

• Irrigation of spray is helpful for large industries in a fast mannor.
• Large fields are connected with pipelines.
• It prevents water logging from taking place, expensive and used for farming.

Drip irrigation

• Less water is required to deliver water which helps plant grow roots.
  • Deliver water slowly
  • Minimizes water loss
  • Helpful for areas with strong winds

Indus Water Treaty (1960)

• India's threat to halt water to Pakistan, while headworks where in India.
• Would have major effects of agriculture and could cause famine.
• Controls:
  • Pakistan's Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
  • India's Ravi, Sutlej and Blas

Considerations

• Aid to build dams by Pakistan for financial purposes.
• Transitional period till 1973, to supple water to Pakistan, 2 dams, and 5 barrages to construct water in link canals.

The Kalabagh dam

• Built by India, the dam made KPK mad because of the lack of of hydroelectricity it would bring.
• Sindh: lack of coasts, and not being able to do agriculture.
• Fish would reduce, because of the production of mangroves.
• Kori barrage would decline, because the water would decelrate

Waterlogging and Salinity

• Too much access of water = waterlogging.
• Salt = salinity

Salinity Prevention

• Canals line which are water proof
• Tube Well
• Plant trees, and ensure water drainage

Climate

• Pakistan is devided into 4 regions: highland, lowland, coastal, arid.
• Highlands climate include winters that are cool, below freezing. Summers are below 20 degrees.
• Lowlands summer can be arid, hot and be cool with short winters.
• Sindh, Balochistan is considered coastal leading to high humidity and short winters.
• Deserts such as Kharan, Tharpaker is arid with low percipitation but high heats.

Elements of an atmosphere

• Air Gases (constant)
• Temp
• Pressure
• Humidity
• Dust

Atmosphere's Elements

• Cloud cover and winds
• Temp is affected by Altitude, Clouds, Sea Distance, and Latitude

Distnace For The Sea

• Direction of wind, rate of heating inverse to pressure
• Maritime effects the sea, as continental comes from the plains.
• Temp impacts pressure, increase and increase.
• Winds follow pressure.

Monsoons

• High and low system pressure effects Australia and Asia with southern monsoons.
• Water Vapor picks of the equator with Pakistan losing steam later.
• Flooding, crop damage and desiese is the case.

Western Depressions

• Turkey's airpressure affects passes Turkey, Afgan with Pakistan in Dec and Mar.
• Places are cooler.

Climate's Effects

• Highland is long cold and snowy with rainfall at high zones.
• Lowalnd: hot summers.
• Coastal: average temp of 32C with maritime climate effects.
• Arid: less dusty winds.

Heat

• Extreme heat, dust storms.

Climate Question

• Distribution has areas with temp 35C.
• Enters with westerns sides.

Multan

• Max temp is with June, and minium with nov.
• Lower rainfall.

Lahore

• Highland is long cold and snowy with rainfall at high zones.

Effets on certain regions

• Highland: Climate and challenges in pottery.

Arid Climate

• low temps, and low rain.

Coatal Climate

• Fishing trade can create problems with habitat with pollution.

Floods

• How prevented ? Plant and build reservoir.
• Effects: can infect infrastructure, and marine life.
• Benefits: fertile and allows floods

Drooughts

• little to no rain leads to death.
• Urbanism is a factor and deforestation.

Drought Managment and Solutions

• conservation and planting, with public awarness.
• Build reservoirs with desalintio and grey waters.

Topography

• surface of elevated land.
• Mountians, desers, plains, and plateaus
• karakoram in the north and kush in north west.
• flowing rivers, glaciers.

Glaciers

• Karakoram: Sacin & Biafro.
• Hindu khush - skitiz jarab.

Passes

• Forms during the stream and glacier.

Physical effects

• Mining gems and stones leads of farm.
• Fishing for river fish.

Northern Mountians

• They are sleep
• Fast rivers flowing mountains.

Western Mountian

• Gorge, with cliffs and snow fall in valley.
• Glacier erosion, and scraping.

Sulamain Range

• Takh-i-sulaiman, 3383 m is the highest peak west of river indus.
• The hills seperate in area with raw slopes. Kirthar separate from lochsitan.

Safed koh range

• Southern to hindu Kush near River Kabul. with Kurdistan and peshar.
• They from border between Pakistan and Afghanistan.

North Mountains

• Rugged and rough surface with dry climate.

Landfroms

• Dissected lands are the soil rocks erodes with rain.
• Depress: shows uplift in northen lights.

Plateau

• Flat top, and at 800m.