Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

Aims and Learning Objectives

• Individuals should understand neurodevelopmental changes during this period
• It's important to have an understanding of the changes between adolescence and adulthood in terms of emotions and social interactions
• There should be a description of how emotion experience and regulation fluctuate throughout adolescence
• It's important to cover how social roles and relationships with peers and parents develop
• This includes the impact of parenting styles on adolescent behavior
• This also includes the brain, emotional, and social determinants of adolescent risk-taking

Changes During Adolescence

• Heightened limbic system activity cause a rise in emotional intensity for adolescents
• Hormonal changes, such as testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol fluctuations, can cause emotional volatility
• Adolescents become more self-conscious and concerned about how others perceive them which can trigger social anxiety
• The "Imaginary Audience" effect causes many adolescent to think that people are always watching and judging them, influencing behavior

Emotions Across Adolescence

• According to a longitudinal experience sampling study by Larson et al. in 2002, 220 youths were surveyed for a week, then again after 4 years
• Results showed emotional states become less positive across early adolescence
• Decline in positive emotions stop by Grade 10, which suggests stabilization in late adolescence

Increased Complexity of Emotion

• Between 12-18 years old individuals become more aware of feelings and their ramifications
• Intense and frequent self-conscious emotions include shame, embarrassment, and pride
• A higher capacity for emotion regulation occurs
• There is heightened emotional self-awareness and a rise in self-conscious emotions, which affects social and psychological growth

Emotional Regulation

• Cognitive coping strategies help adolescents manage negative emotions
• Adaptive strategies include positive reappraisal, or thinking of a situation in a more positive way
• Focus on planning, or building strategies for stress reduction is key
• Maladaptive strategies include rumination, dwelling on negative feelings
• Or using self-blame, placing excessive responsibility on oneself
• Learning to switch from maladaptive to adaptive coping may help avoid anxiety and depression even though the ability to regulate emotions improves with age

Social Changes

• Adolescents becoming more fearful of being judged or rejected especially in peer settings which increases social anxiety
• Peer relationships less focused on shared activities
• The move from family- to peer-focused social structures marks a strong desire for independence
• Mature peer relations and independence from adults are both achieved during this stage
• Teens are more inclined to participate in thrill-seeking activities because of an imbalance between the prefrontal cortex, regulation, and the limbic system, emotion
• People try out new identities, values, and beliefs to form a sense of self

Social Relationships

• A 2014 social media study assessed how Facebook usage relates to the sense that others are constantly watching and judging (Imaginary Audience ideation)
• 9-26 year old individuals participated in the study
• Outcomes showed that Facebook usage is positively associated with Imaginary Audience ideation
• Frequent Facebook users are more prone to feeling watched or judged
• A connection between self-consciousness and social media activity: those who frequently thought about their self-presentation also controlled their image online more

Effects of Peer Rejection

• A study of rejection using Cyberball and fMRI was undertaken in 2011 by Sebastian et al
• Participants played a virtual ball-toss game during the Cyberball Task
• Eventually they are excluded by the others in order to simulate rejection
• Results showed adolescents had higher distress levels coming from social exclusion than adults
• The tests results indicate that the medial prefrontal cortex, mPFC was activated during social exclusion

Peer Relationships

• Development of identity and providing social support and a sense of belonging are key outcomes
• Intimacy and self-disclosure, rather than just shared activities, are essential
• They are usually more positive and provide intimacy and emotional support
• However, they can be negative and support bullying or risk-taking, environmental factors related

Parent Relationships

• While still seeking support and security, adolescents are growing increasingly independent
• Balance shifts happen between attachment and exploration
• Although not always, people face common conflict with their parents
• Intensity and frequency of conflict is highest in early adolescence while it declines in late adolescence

Parent-Adolescent Relationships

• Shaping factors include child temperament and early attachment patterns
• Warm, responsive parenting fosters stronger relationships and greater adjustment
• Authoritative parenting entails warmth+firm guidance to encourage well-being and independence
• Adolescents handle conflict when its approached calmly and firmly
• Problems can arise with excessively harsh or permissive parenting

Parenting Styles

• Responsiveness pertains to warmth along with sensitivity and support
• The levels of limitation enforced are influenced by demand-control
• Authoritative: exercise power with a reasonable set of rules
• Most successful style: authoritative, responsive to needs that's flexible and supportive

Parenting Styles Influences

• Authoritative parenting is linked to better adolescent adjustment in all cultures
• Higher confidence and cooperation, less delinquency and trouble are signs of success
• Higher levels of mental health, and improved school performance have also been noted
• Adolescent adjustment can result in changes in parenting
• Adaptive families adjust approach based on teen's needs along with good parenting
• Adaptive families is beneficial, though might be a way to help well balanced adolescent to have positive outcomes

Risk-Taking in Adolescence

• Authoritative parenting lowers risk taking behaviours (moderate control and emotional support)
• A 2012 study by Piko & Balazs, shows connection between parenting styles and relationships and risky behaviour in adolescents
• It was found that there was a link between lower parental emotional responsiveness and higher risk
• Additionally, negative family interactions as well as a lack of parental identification may have been predictive

Peer Pressure

• A third of 17-21 year olds drive with more than one friend in the car
• It's found that young drivers are dangerously influenced by peer pressure when driving
• A factor of 21% pay less attention and 24% take their hands off the wheel and 15% perform illegal driving manoeuvres
• Adolescents also have less experience

Peer Influence Study

• It was investigated whether risk-taking in teenagers increases when are present
• Participants performed a driving-simulator task in two scenarios
  • Alone with no observers
  • Surprise Peer condition , friends observed from another room
• Participants included young adults 19-22 years, adolescents 14-18 years, and adults 24-29 years

Research Findings

• Adolescents took more risks when being watched, also in the test and the fMRI test
• There was a higher show of activity in reward related regions in the Peer Condition
• In adolescents the prefrontal cortex region was less active compared to adults and didn't change in peer surrounding

Adolescent Brain

• Increased brain sensitivity to rewards are associated with adolescent choices
• Additionally adolescents are more sensitive to potential rewards
• Risks are taken due to explicit peer pressure

Risk Tests

• Study risk without relying on driving experience is key
• The Balloon Analogue Risk Task involves participants inflating a virtual balloon
• They earn money per inflation, if the balloon bursts it results in money loss
• Between 14-18 the results show adolescents are higher at risk taking, inflating the more compared to adult and young children

Risky Behaviour

• Risky behavior is higher in adolescence, however the minority of teenagers still do it
• It's still only a minority of teenagers who involve in criminal behaviour, reckless driving, drugs and dangerous sport
• There are social, emotional, cognitive and brain changes
• Risk taking is adaptive

Food For Thought

• Taking some risk enhances peer acceptance and integration
• It allows people to seek new experiences increasing independence
• Malala Yousafzai showed world the risky teens that she became

Brain Activity

• During development there is a theory about mismatch
• Individuals seek excitement (peer's and novelty) because their limbic structure is very sensitive
• Because prefrontal cortex is still developing those individuals might fully anticipate their consequence in actions

Mature Brain

• The test finds reduction of prefrontal cortex and reduces risk taking in mature brain.
• Reduced prefrontal activation represents a adult like development
• Lower levels of grey matter represents adulthood level

Peer Conflict

• Chronic conflict it associates more risky behaviour in balloon test
• High brain activity in taking risk and greater limbic are activity with reward sensitivity

Lecture Summary

• Understanding of emotions, increase in consciousness and regulations during puberty
• Family is a balance of important parent style while achieving autonomy
• The relationship with peers is becoming important
• Risk related to brain development and parenting style