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Questions and Answers

What are the functional units of the nervous system?

Neurons

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory or afferent neurons, motor or efferent neurons, and interneurons

Which of the following is NOT a function of the nervous system?

  • Control of responses to stimuli
  • Production of hormones (correct)
  • Coordination of responses to stimuli
  • Detection of external stimuli

    • What are the non-neuronal cells that support and protect the brain's neurons called?

    <p>Neuroglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuroglia is responsible for the formation of myelin in the central nervous system?

    <p>Oligodendrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a neurotransmitter that is generally excitatory?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that affects motor skills, speech, and other functions?

    <p>Parkinson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of the process of thinking and of emotional responsiveness?

    <p>Schizophrenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the neurotransmitter that is generally inhibitory?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a neurotransmitter that is secreted by the CNS and at invertebrate neuromuscular junctions?

    <p>GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a neurotransmitter that is excitatory to skeletal muscle, but inhibitory to cardiac muscle?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main divisions of the vertebrate nervous system?

    <p>Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of a cluster of nerve cell bodies within the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Ganglion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for regulating autonomic activity, such as thermoregulation, hunger, and thirst?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is involved in the coordination of movement, muscle tone, posture, and balance?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for relaying sensory information to the cerebrum, and also plays a role in regulating emotion and arousal?

    <p>Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of nerve signals?

    <p>Graded potentials and action potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Action potentials are all-or-nothing events, meaning that they either occur fully or not at all.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which action potentials are conducted more quickly in myelinated neurons?

    <p>Saltatory conduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the small gap between two neurons at a synapse?

    <p>Synaptic cleft</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of neurotransmitter?

    <p>Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the fluid that fills the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord?

    <p>Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    White matter in the brain and spinal cord is composed of myelinated axons, while gray matter is composed of unmyelinated axons, nuclei, and dendrites.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the autonomic response that involves a simple nerve circuit?

    <p>Reflex arc</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for processing visual information?

    <p>Cerebrum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for integrating auditory information with other sensory inputs?

    <p>Midbrain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a part of the brainstem?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the brain functions as a biological clock?

    <p>Hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The right hemisphere of the brain specializes in language, math, logic operations, and the processing of serial sequences of information.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is typically responsible for speech production?

    <p>Broca's area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is typically responsible for the comprehension of speech?

    <p>Wernicke's area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of the limbic system?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of memory that are involved in memory and learning?

    <p>Short-term memory and long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory is NOT influenced by emotional states.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in humans?

    <p>12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of sensory receptor?

    <p>Hormone receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the process by which sensory receptors convert stimulus energy into signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system?

    <p>Sensory transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory receptor detects mechanical energy?

    <p>Mechanoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory receptor detects chemical stimuli?

    <p>Chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory receptor detects electromagnetic energy, such as visible light?

    <p>Photoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eye cups, the simplest photoreceptors, detect light intensity and direction, but they do not form images.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In insects and crustaceans, what type of eye forms images by using ommatidia?

    <p>Compound eyes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an animal with a single-lens eye?

    <p>Octopus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the process by which the vertebrate eye focuses light on the retina?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mammals, which type of photoreceptor is responsible for vision in dim light?

    <p>Rod cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mammals, which type of photoreceptor is responsible for color vision?

    <p>Cone cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The absorption of light by rhodopsin, the visual pigment in rod cells, initiates a signal transduction pathway.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the vertebrate eye, how do rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells?

    <p>They synapse with bipolar cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The optic nerves of the two eyes meet at the optic chiasm, where the nasal half of each tract crosses to the opposite side.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where in the thalamus do most of the ganglion cell axons from the optic tract synapse?

    <p>Lateral geniculate nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the fluid that fills the cochlear duct?

    <p>Endolymph</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a part of the inner ear?

    <p>Tympanic membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the structure in the cochlea that contains hair cells and is responsible for sound transduction?

    <p>Organ of Corti</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the membrane that vibrates in response to vibrations in the cochlear fluid and causes hair cells to brush against the tectorial membrane?

    <p>Basilar membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pitch of a sound is determined by the frequency of the sound wave, while the volume of a sound is determined by the amplitude of the sound wave.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensory receptor is responsible for detecting the position and movement of the head and body in an invertebrate?

    <p>Statocysts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In insects, what is the name of the membrane that is stretched over a hollow chamber and vibrates in response to sound waves?

    <p>Tympanic membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mammals, taste receptors are located in taste buds, most of which are found on the surface of the tongue.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each taste receptor cell is highly specific, responding to only one type of chemical.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a taste that humans can typically detect?

    <p>Spicy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mammals, olfactory receptors are located in the nasal cavity and are responsible for detecting smells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Olfactory receptor cells are not sensory neurons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the part of the brain that receives signals from olfactory receptor cells and processes information related to smell?

    <p>Olfactory bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nervous Coordination

    • The nervous system detects external and internal stimuli.
    • It controls and coordinates responses to stimuli.
    • The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and sense organs.

    Neurons: Functional Units of Nervous System

    • Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system.
    • Types of neurons include: sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), and interneurons.
    • Neurons have dendrites to receive signals, a cell body, an axon to transmit signals, a myelin sheath, and axon terminal branches.
    • Signals travel from dendrites to the axon terminal branches.
    • The synapse is the junction between neurons.
    • The presynaptic cell releases neurotransmitters.
    • The postsynaptic cell receives neurotransmitters.

    Neuroglia

    • Neuroglia, also called glial cells, are non-neuronal cells.
    • They maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and support/protect neurons.
    • Examples include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.

    Astrocytes

    • Astrocytes provide biochemical support to endothelial cells forming the blood-brain barrier.
    • They supply nutrients to nervous tissue.
    • They maintain extracellular ion balance.
    • They play a significant role in repair and scarring of brain and spinal cord after injury.

    Oligodendrocytes

    • Oligodendrocytes insulate axons in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) of higher vertebrates.
    • They provide nutrients to nervous tissue.

    Microglia

    • Microglia are resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord.
    • They are the primary form of active immune defense in the central nervous system.

    Patterns of Organization of Nervous Systems

    • Nerve nets are found in simple animals like hydra and sea stars.
    • Cephalization, the concentration of nervous tissue, leads to more complex nervous systems.

    Nature of Nerve Signals

    • Every cell has a voltage or membrane potential across its plasma membrane.
    • A membrane potential is a localized electrical gradient across the membrane.
    • Anions are more concentrated within a cell.
    • Cations are more concentrated in the extracellular fluid.
    • An unstimulated cell usually has a resting potential of -70 mV.

    How a Cell Maintains Membrane Potential

    • The principal intracellular cation is K+.
    • Na+ is the principal extracellular cation.
    • Proteins, amino acids, sulfate, and phosphate are principal intracellular anions.
    • Cl– is the principal extracellular anion.

    Ungated Ion Channels

    • Ungated ion channels allow ions to diffuse across the plasma membrane; they are always open.

    Excitation

    • Changes in membrane potential trigger nerve impulses.
    • Excitation of cells involves opening or closing of gated ion channels.
    • Subsequent ion diffusion changes membrane potential.

    Types of Gated Ions

    • Chemically-gated ion channels open/close in response to a chemical stimulus.
    • Voltage-gated ion channels open/close in response to a change in membrane potential.

    Graded Potentials

    • Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential (hyperpolarization & depolarization)

    Action Potential

    • The summation of graded potentials may reach a threshold (-55mV).
    • This triggers an action potential.
    • An action potential is an all-or-nothing response.
    • Action potentials propagate along axons only.

    Voltage-gated Na+ Channels

    • Voltage-gated Na+ channels have activation gates (open rapidly in response to depolarization) and inactivation gates (close slowly in response to depolarization).
    • These channels are crucial in the action potential.

    Saltatory Conduction

    • In myelinated neurons, the action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier.
    • This speeds up impulse transmission.

    Synapses

    • Electrical synapses: the action potential travels directly via gap junctions between presynaptic and postsynaptic cells.
    • Chemical synapses: the action potential triggers release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft and act on receptors of the postsynaptic cell; postsynaptic cell channels for ions such as Na+, K+, and Cl– then open/close resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Examples: acetylcholine, biogenic amines (epinephrine, norepinephrine), dopamine, serotonin, amino acids (GABA, glycine, glutamate, aspartate), neuropeptides (substance P, endorphins), and gases (nitric oxide, carbon monoxide).
    • Different neurotransmitters have various effects: excitatory or inhibitory on target cells.

    Parkinson’s disease

    • A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system impairing motor skills, speech, and other functions.
    • Symptoms include muscle rigidity, tremor, postural abnormalities, slowed movement (bradykinesia), and loss of movement (akinesia).

    Schizophrenia

    • A mental disorder characterized by the disintegration of thought processes and emotions.
    • Symptoms include auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, disorganized speech and thinking, and significant social or occupational dysfunction.

    Vertebrate Nervous Systems

    • The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
    • The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord.
    • The PNS includes cranial nerves, and ganglia outside the CNS as well as spinal nerves.
    • The PNS is further separated into sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) divisions.
      • The motor division is further separated into somatic and autonomic divisions.
        • The autonomic division is further separated into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

    Ganglia and Nuclei

    • A ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies found in the peripheral nervous system.
    • A nucleus is a cluster of nerve cells in the central nervous system.

    Cranial Nerves

    • There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in humans.
    • Some cranial nerves have both sensory and motor functions.
      • Some originate from the cerebrum.
      • Others from the brainstem.

    Sensory Systems

    • Sensations begin as different forms of energy detected by sensory receptors.
    • Receptors convert stimulus energy to action potentials that travel to appropriate areas of the brain.
    • Sensations are action potentials reaching the brain carried by sensory neurons.
    • Perception is the awareness and interpretation of the sensation.
    • Sensory reception involves transduction, amplification, transmission, and integration.

    Sensory Transduction

    • Conversion of stimulus energy (e.g., light, pressure) into a change in membrane potential, a receptor potential.
    • Involves special receptors unique to the various forms of energy (e.g., photoreceptors for light).

    Sensory Receptors

    • Special receptors that detect specific forms of energy like heat, light, pain, pressure, and chemicals. (examples of mechanoreceptors, pain receptors, thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors)
      • Exteroreceptors detect stimuli originating outside the body.
      • Interoreceptors detect stimuli originating inside the body.

    Types of Receptors

    • Mechanoreceptors: respond to mechanical energy (e.g., pressure, touch, stretch).
    • Pain receptors: respond to damaging stimuli.
    • Thermoreceptors: respond to heat or cold.
    • Chemoreceptors: respond to chemical stimuli (e.g., taste, smell, changes in blood composition).
    • Electromagnetic receptors: respond to electromagnetic energy (e.g., light).

    Photoreception

    • Photoreceptors (e.g., rod cells and cone cells) detect light.
    • Simple photoreceptors (e.g., eye cups) detect light intensity and direction.
    • Compound eyes (e.g., insects) consist of ommatidia, each with a light-focusing lens.
    • Single-lens eyes (e.g., invertebrates like octopus) work like a camera.
    • Vertebrate eyes have a cornea, lens, retina (photoreceptors), and supporting structures.
    • Accommodation in mammals involves changing the shape of the lens to focus light.

    Human Retina

    • Contains about 125 million rod cells (low light vision) and 6 million cone cells (color vision).

    Visual Processing in Retina

    • Visual processing begins with rods and cones synapsing with bipolar cells, then with ganglion cells.
    • Horizontal and amacrine cells are involved in lateral inhibition (enhancing contrast).

    Hearing and Equilibrium

    • Sound waves travel to the cochlea and stimulate hair cells generating an action potential (carried by the auditory nerve).
    • Pitch depends on where on the basilar membrane the hair cells that depolarize are located.
    • Volume depends on the amplitude of the sound waves.
    • The inner ear also contains equilibrium organs (semicircular canals, utricle, saccule) that detect rotational and linear acceleration, respectively.

    Chemoreception

    • Taste receptors in insects are on their feet.
    • Mammal taste receptors are in taste buds on the tongue.
    • Each receptor responds to a range of chemicals.
    • Olfactory receptors in mammals line the nasal cavity.

    Brain Regions: Structure and Function

    • Forebrain - includes telencephalon and diencephalon

    • Midbrain - includes mesencephalon

    • Hindbrain - includes metencephalon and myelencephalon

    • Structures within the brain and their functions: -Cerebrum (cerebral cortex, basal nuclei) – higher-order functions -Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) – coordinating functions -Midbrain – contains nuclei for sensory integration -Cerebellum – coordination of motor activities; integrates sensory information -Medulla oblongata, pons – control basic life functions (e.g., breathing, heart rate)

    Embryonic Development of the Brain

    • Development of different brain regions from three embryonic vesicles (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain).
    • Transformations of structures during prenatal development into adult structures

    Lateralization of Brain Function

    • Specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain for different functions -Left - language, math, logic -Right - spatial reasoning, pattern recognition, emotions, parallel processing

    Language and Speech

    • Broca's area: responsible for speech production.
    • Wernicke's area: responsible for speech comprehension.

    The Limbic System

    • Network of brain structures: amygdala, hippocampus, olfactory cortex, inner portions of cortex lobes, parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus
    • Mediate basic emotions (e.g., fear, anger), emotional memory, emotional content of facial expressions.

    Memory & Learning

    • Short-term memory stored in frontal lobes.
    • Establishment of long-term memory involves the hippocampus.
    • Transfer from short-term to long-term memory is enhanced by repetition and emotion.

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